Tour to Neocene
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It’s cold. It’s very cold. At each breath ice air rushes into
nostrils, and burns them with shrill cold, literally locking them. And each
exhalation is pulled out from a mouth as a cloud of steam which at once condenses
on wool as hoarfrost.
In winter sun can not appear at sky for long weeks. Only when sky turns lighter,
it is possible to understand that day began. The sky is constantly covered with
a veil of clouds, and the sun is occasionally visible among them as slightly
lighter spot on grey background. The landscape spread under the dim sky oppresses
with the monotony. It seems like in this world only two colors remained – black
and white. White snow covers the ground with thick carpet, lays on branches
of fur-trees and pines in huge heaps, and only here and there deciduous trees
stretch the bared branches to the sky, looking like black silhouettes against
the background of sky. In dim daylight on background of white snow the needles
of fur and pine trees look almost black. And when the blizzard begins, the whole
world turns to a monotonous white veil. It is impossible to see neither the
sky, nor trees, and even in few steps away few things are possible to distinguish.
The rumble of a wind blocks all sounds, and snow closes up eyes, ears and nose.
Closer to the end of winter one more color rushes into monotonous picture of
winter landscape – dark blue. From the clear high sky sun shines, and its light,
reflected from snow, blinds eyes up to a pain and sparkles on snowdrifts as
thousands of spangles. But thus it seems that the sun does not heat at all –
in such weather frost only strengthens, and then snow loudly crunches under
feet, and all branches become covered with a thick layer of hoarfrost and trees
resemble white skeletons of corals from the warm southern seas.
This world can look beautiful, but it is very severe during the most part of
year. Any live creatures, not capable to resist to icy wind and burning frost,
is doomed for death here. It is Eastern Siberia, the kingdom of continental
climate.
Warming is typical for Neocene epoch, and the tropical area at this time has
appreciablly extended. But the huge area of Eurasia, the significant part of
which is far from the warm seas, is still an area of domination of continental
climate, and here even in Neocene winters remain the most severe in northern
hemisphere. Snow falls here, and because of increase of amount of moisture in
atmosphere thickness of snow cover can be even greater, than in severe epoch
of congelation at the boundary of Holocene and Neocene. It seems that it is
impossible to large animal to live in such conditions, but actually it is not
true: very large herbivores live in Siberia, and productivity of ecosystems
allows them to exist. The part of them belongs to number of migrants, and they
appear in this area only after warming. But there are species living here the
all year round and adapted to enduring such severe conditions.
Snow crunches under wide hooves. Herd of huge animals plods through snowdrifts,
falling in to the stomach level. They have elongated massive heads, extended
to short mobile proboscis. The tusks slightly bent upwards stick out from mouths
of animals. Bodies of animals are covered with shaggy brown wool which looks
white near mouth and on shoulders because of hoarfrost, to which steam pulled
out of a mouth at an exhalation turns. This is a herd of shurga – one of large
animals of Siberia, the representative of Neocene group of trunk boars. Forms
related to shurga live in warmer places, but this kind is perfectly adapted
to survival in cold Siberian winters, and does not aspire to migrate anywhere.
Similarly to all representatives of trunk boars, shurga is a direct descendant
of a wild boar – steady and ecologically plastic species, which has easily survived
in human epoch and has gone through global ecological crisis at the boundary
of epochs. In behaviour of shurga there are many features inherited from an
ancestor. In herd of these animals the strict hierarchy is established. The
leader of herd is the adult male about fifteen years old. It leads herd for
the third year, and at its authority the herd keeps more or less constant structure,
and has successfully enough gone through last winters. This male is in the prime
of life: its tusks are not broken yet, wool is thick and warm, and on the back
the hump of fat grows – it is a stock of nutrients for the case of famine. Winter
has already passed for middle, but at the leading male and other adult individuals
of herd humps are still kept – it is a sign that the herd was well fed at the
end of summer and in autumn, and has developed enough fat to go through winter.
Also on head of the leader male there is a low fatty outgrowth indicating the
good physical condition of this animal. Cheeks of the giant are covered with
corneous plates, and on them the first traces of courtship tournaments are already
marked as deep scratches.
Having reached the leadership in herd, this male now should keep up safety of
animals submitting to it. Otherwise during the next summer all females can leave
its herd, and to it will come to struggle for life alone. Therefore male watches
closely the world around, listening and smelling air. In case of an attack of
predators it will go to protect its herd for the first. It is armed very well,
and while it is strong, no predators of this area frighten it. Shoulders, neck
and front part of back of shurga are covered with thick skin, which can hardly
be bitten through by predators, therefore, meeting the enemy face to face, male
is not afraid of an attack.
Leader male breaks through snow first and clears the way for other herd members.
It runs into snowdrifts breast first, and tramples snow down by wide hooves.
Behind it other herd members follow – at first four adults females which brought
posterity for many years, and then two young females. Many females in herd bear
cubs from the leader of herd. Behind them two cubs hasten hardly – these ones
had been born in the last year. Winter happened rigorous: the last year when
snow only has covered the ground, there were five cubs. Few young animal succeed
to go through their first winter, and two survived cubs represent rather good
result for small herd. Cubs try to follow mothers – it is easier for them to
move on the trampled down snow. But all the same their hooves fail in snow,
and they are compelled to catch up with adult males with clumsy bounds. At the
some distance from the main herd three young males keep - one two- and two three-year
old males, posterity of the previous leader. They are young, and the adult leader
male successfully prevents their demonstration of force and the claim for leadership
in herd for the while. In the coming years any of these males can hardly apply
seriously for authority in this herd. Most likely, they would leave this herd,
and will try their luck during the following spring or one year later, in hope
to usurp authority at any old leader, or would form the small barchelor leck.
And at the end of herd, hardly hastening behind the others, one more animal
walks – the old male, the former leader of herd. It had been defeated by the
young applicant in combat, but had been not expelled or killed, as it would
take place at predators. Now it is compelled to demonstrate the submission to
the new leader and to stay away from it. This one is more than thirty years
old – it is a great age for shurga. Few animals manage to keep even their lives
up to such age, not to speak of leadership in herd. Wool of old male has lighter
shade, and near eyes and ears it is gray at all. Corneous plates on its cheeks
have traces of set of great victories, which have remained in the past. Defeated
male does not hasten to leave herd for one reason – it is easier to herd to
search for food and to protect against enemies in common. But it should use
the best efforts to keep abreast and to not remain in loneliness.
Both new, and old leaders perfectly know, that predators constantly pursue herd.
When the blizzard covers up traces, predators search in snow for heaps of the
frozen manure left by animals, and due to it they define, in what direction
the herd moves. They seldom lag behind for a long time, because they know, that
in herd there will be a prey for them. In clear weather adult animals notice
their persecutors keeping at the respectful distance. At the distance of several
kilometers from shurga herd large animals with magnificent white winter fur
constantly keep; in constitution they are similar to wolves. The white winter
wool is added with the rich fur growing on toes, and these animals can easily
run on snow, when pursuing the herd. It is waheela – the huge descendant of
Arctic fox of human epoch. Waheelas are perfectly adapted to life in conditions
of rigorous winter, and are perfectly equipped for hunting for large prey. Usually,
while hunting shurga, they try to put to chosen animal wounds on the back part
of the body, which is not protected by the armour of thick skin, and then pursue
the herd until their prey will die from loss of blood. Sometimes they simply
surround and separate one animal off herd, and exhaust it to death. Surga hunting
is dangerous, but it provides the whole pack of waheelas with food for many
days. Waheelas frequently hunt another local herbivore – snow harelope. These
ones are difficult for preying, because harelopes are very cautious, but on
friable snow harelopes run slower and turn to easy prey. They are numerous in
the Siberian forests, and they are easy for finding, and meat of harelope is
tasty and gentle. But they are difficult for preying, and the carcass of one
such animal is enough only for one feeding, and the pack is compelled to continue
hunting.
The wind fluffers long winter wool of predators. They walk along the trace of
herd – the wide track laid in snow. Snow is trampled down by numerous hooves,
and it is easy for waheelas to run following the shurga herd. It is very difficult
to pursue these giants, waiting an opportunity for an attack, if hunters are
hungry. Therefore members of the pack frequently interrupt the pursuit, searching
under snow for rodents or corpses of animals, frozen at night. They do not hurry
up to attack, waiting for the opportunity for this purpose. The track of shurgas
and heaps of manure left by these animal represent excellent landmarks, and
using them it is possible to learn much about herd and to choose the optimum
moment for an attack.
At the clearing protected from wind by thickets of pines, shurga herd had stopped
to have a rest for a while, and then had risen, and moved farther. The traces
left on snow can tell much about a condition of animals. Waheelas begin sniffing
at snow and heaps of manure left by shurgas. When shurga lays in snow, from
its body the big deepening is left. Many impressions of shurga bodies on snow
are located together. It is the main part of herd – the leader and adult females.
Among holes in snow left by female bodies, traces of small hooves are visible
– waheelas see that in pursued herd there are two cubs, and these are their
traces. The juveniles are obviously healthy – they keep near females. If the
cub is sick, female would drive it away from itself instinctively, but here
cub traces are located near the traces of females. Possible, cubs were heated,
pressing against bodies of adult animals, and played with each other while females
had a rest. Nearby to the main congestion of traces some deepenings, located
beside each other, are appreciable. Here young males had a rest – these animals
are self-confident and dangerous to attack. While they have not learned to be
afraid of predators, they can attack, lift adult waheela on tusks, and throw
it some meters away. The last winter the mistake in a choice of prey cost the
life of one of young females in pack. Shurga female attacked by their pack appeared
strong and quick enough. It had hooked this female by tusk, and had thrown it
far aside – against the tree trunk. Impact has broken a female’s backbone, and
it had remained at the place of that tragic hunting – alive, but with the paralysed
back legs. When the pack of predators left, the herd of shurgas had simply trampled
it to death. Each such loss is too expensive price for large prey hunting. Therefore
waheelas examine traces attentively, estimating the probability of successful
hunting. They know that sooner or later someone will get behind the herd or
will be lost, and they are ready to use the best efforts to approach this event.
One body impression in snow has especially interested the predators. It was
located at the distance from the others, was little bit deeper than others,
and traces led from it to the continuation of herd track, testified that the
animal has galloped. Obviously, it had a rest longer than the others, and then
ran after the herd. The smell of manure of this animal also differs from a smell
of manure of other ones in herd: the animal obviously feels bad. Observing the
herd during some past days, waheelas had seen the old male lagged behind the
main part of herd. Obviously, it can be preyed.
Old shurga male can not keep up with herd. The last few days it lagged behind
the others more and more, and was compelled to put much more efforts to remain
in safety among relatives. When the herd stopped to pick the branches of trees
sticking out from under snow, or to dig out evergreen bushes, old male came
there the last. It had got much less food, and it had gradually weakened. Nothing
remained from the former stocks of fat, accumulated during an autumn. In due
course its life has turned over. When it was full and healthy, it was only slightly
disturbed with silhouettes of white predators pursuing herd and keeping at a
great distance from it. But now white silhouettes began to frighten old male
– it has felt danger which they bear to the full.
Waheelas have continued the pursuit of herd. Now they precisely know, what animal
will become an object of attack, and prepare to hunt. Animals run after the
herd, gradually make up for it. The trace of herd is directed to the forest,
and it only favours to hunting. Among trees shurgas are not so mobile, and they
can not form a defensive ring, protecting cubs by their boodies and facing the
enemy with mighty tusks. While the herd of shurgas moves among trees, waheelas
should not miss their chance. Having run for some kilometers, predators have
seen the animals brought up the rear of herd, and their future prey among them
– old male which really lags behind a lump of animals. Now predators should
operate quickly. They line up in crescent line, gradually covering shurga herd
from sides and behind. Their target is a male last in herd, and it is necessary
to cut it off from other animals.
The leader male has felt approach of predators. Shurga has bad sight, and pine
branches and the trunks broken by winter storms make the view worse. But it
has heard predators, and then could notice one of the predators flashed among
trees. Circumstances do not favour to shurgas, and mighty animals can not meet
predators face to face. And the leader of herd has begun to roar, calling herd
to flight. Shurga herd, obeying a signal of the leader, has turned to unguided
mass of flesh and bones. The leader runned without picking its way, running
into thickets of young trees, and herd followed it, blindly submitting to its
will. Only females driven by parental instinct tried to protect cubs, keeping
between them and predators. Animals in forward part of herd have seen large
predators with the snow-white fur, pursuing them, only for a moment. But animals
at the end of herd were grasped with the true fear. Among them some waheelas
rushed, and the instinctive fear to predators forced shurga males to rush, gathering
their strength, following the main herd. Waheelas did not pay special attention
to healthy strong males. Only once, when three-year old male appeared insufficiently
quick, one of predators has bitten its hip. The pain has forced young male to
make additional effort, and it has rushed right over the tumbled down trunk
of huge pine in direction where voices of herd were heard in a snow dust.
Waheelas had surrounded shurga male, not allowing it to run away, and it has
stopped, panting and looking at its pursuers. The attack of waheelas appeared
successful, but hunting was not finished yet. The prey chosen by them was only
separated from herd, but not killed. Male still could resist, and its will to
live was great. Therefore it has rushed straight through their pack, trying
to join the herd. Voices of its congeners were audible somewhere in a distance,
and male even smelt the manure left by one of animals during the pursuit. Male
has rushed rught to predators with menacing uterine roar, and several waheelas
had to jump aside not to get under heavy hooves or on tusks of this animal.
But at the same moment the leader of waheelas has rushed on shurga male, and
has bitten its hip on which skin was not too strong. It managed to put to the
animal a deep wound by canines, and snow was painted by shurga’s blood. Having
roared with pain, male rushed to follow the leaving herd, and its pursuers have
run after it. The smell of blood promised fast prey to them, and the circumstance
which has forced them to recede would hardly be found. Having preyed this male,
waheelas would gorge on and provide themselves with food for some days.
Waheelas easily noticed a trace of the prey among traces of other animals. The
wound appeared deep enough, and blood flew from it for a long time. Having overtaken
shurga male, some more animals one by one have bitten its rear legs and stomach.
Even more blood has appeared on snow. Tired out by waheelas, male began to reel
– the weariness and loss of blood made it unable to resist. Having gathered
the rests of forces, male has rushed away from the pursuers. It managed to come
off them for some tens meters. Shurga male has stopped to catch its breath for
a while…
Portrait of berl |
… Huge paw was lowered on neck of animal with great effort.
The crunch of bones was heared, and shurga male covered with wounds was heavily
tumbled down on snow. Its backbone was broken, and the animal has died immediately.
And the animal preyed it watched the waheelas running from the forest, and has
begun to roar terribly. It surpassed in weight of the largest waheela male considerably,
and fight with it could be finished by death for any of these animals tired
with a long pursuit.
Berl is a top predator of the Siberian forests in winter. In summer it has competitors,
but winter forests and mountains belong to this animal entirely and completely.
Berl is the largest kind of mustelid family. Male taken away the prey of waheela
pack weighs almost half-ton. In constitution and force it is similar to bear,
but, as against this animal wanished for a long time, berl stays active in winter.
The magnificent white fur helps berl to creep to its prey imperceptibly, and
huge force allows falling down young or wounded shurga with one blow of paw.
Waheelas surround the carcass of shurga above which the huge snow-white predator
towers. These predators keep aloof from the owner of Neocene forests which has
taken away their prey. Meeting the berl is rather often event in life of waheelas.
This animal has extremely keen sense of smell, and waheelas had to leave half-eaten,
or even just killed prey more than once, when berl came to it. If hunting appeared
unsuccessful, waheelas can wait for the rests of berl’s prey. It happened some
weeks ago, when the clan of waheelas had met berl killed young shurga. Hunting
was unsuccessful till some days, and all animals were very hungry. One young
animal has carelessly come nearer to feasting predator, and was killed by impact
of mighty paw.
Not paying attention to waheelas, berl started eating. Thick skin of shurga
has easily given in to its canines and paws. After one jerk of clawed paw interiors
of shurga have fallen out on snow and in air exciting smell of blood appeared,
forcing waheelas only to lick their lips and to swallow saliva. And berl, not
paying attention to them, began eating the liver – the tastiest and vitamin-rich
part of prey. Having finished with it, it has begun to tear off pieces of meat
and to swallow them greedy. Berl is capable to eat up to fifty kilograms of
meat at one go. But the carcass of shurga weighs much more, and even the hungriest
and gluttonous berl can not swallow everything, that it is possible to eat on
it.
Berl ate meat, looking at waheelas gathered around of it. When some of them
tried to come nearer, berl grinned threateningly and struck the carcass by paw,
showing undoubtfully the property right to prey. But gradually its demonstrations
became less aggressive – the animal was sated. Nevertheless it was not about
to refuse the right on prey. To designate it clearly, berl has turned to shurga
corpus by back, has lifted fluffy tail up, and has splashed the carcass with
disgustingly smelling secretions of anal glands. Then the animal started covering
its prey with snow, raking it with its hind legs. It walked around the carcass
from the all sides, throwing snow on it, and grinned threateningly, if waheelas
ran off away insufficiently quickly. Having finished with this work, the huge
predator has come to the trunk of large pine tree growing beside, has risen
on hind legs, and with one powerful movement has torn off a long strip of bark
from tree trunk, having naked light wood. After that it has turned to tree by
back, and has also marked it with odorous secretions. Having sated, berl climbed
to the tumbled down trunk of large pine, and has fallen asleep on it like a
leopard – having lowered paws and tail freely on sides of trunk. Satelity has
made it sluggish and languid for some hours, and the huge animal has fallen
asleep.
Waheelas waited patiently, while berl will leave the lawful prey stolen at them.
They pursued herd too long to recede even when facing huge berl. Certainly,
the best part of prey will not get to waheelas any more, but all the same a
great lot of meat is rest for them. When berl has left, waheelas have started
to come nearer to shurga carcass warily. They have cautiously sniffed at the
mark left by berl on pine trunk, and have started to rake by forepaws the snow
heaped up the carcass by this predator. The mark of berl was left on rib cage
of prostrate animal, and waheelas were afraid to bite off meat in this part
of carcass. Obeying an instinct, they have acted with it precisely the same
as they act with their own dung: they have simply thrown even more snow on front
part of carcass, having made a smell of berl’s mark less distinct. But back
part of carcass was hardly eaten by predator. Meat has cooled down, but had
no time to freeze hard, and strong jaws of waheelas have seized it greedy. Animals
swallowed large pieces of meat, not caring that ice crunched on its surface.
The food meant life, and waheelas tried to take as much as possible from this
hunting. It is not known, when they will manage to have a meal so well for the
next time. And this prey now belongs to berl. It will stay near it while everything
possible to eat would be eaten, and waheelas can hardly expect to return to
this prey once again. Therefore, having filled stomaches with meat, animals
have left the labels near the carcass, appreciating an instinct, and have gone
away not to meet berl once again.
In winter all live beings have two most terrible enemies – famine and cold.
Operating together, they are capable to kill even the largest animal. But, if
the stomach is full of food, the cold is not so terrible. The shurga herd escaped
from predators, but the cost of the escape was life of one of its members. No
animal realizes that sooner or later it can appear at the place of killed male
if will not die due to any other circumstances. And the second the enemy after
the predator is a famine. Therefore, when pursuit stopped, the herd has passed
from run to step, and then gradually stopped. Animals have got tired very much,
and some females have lain on snow to have a rest. And males began to wander
in forest, searching for forage. In summer shurgas eat various kinds of food
– grass, twigs, roots and tubers of plants. But in winter animals are forced
to pass to more rough and less nutritious forage. The deep snow cover allows
animals to reach the lower branches of trees by short proboscis. The most edible
part remaining on trees in winter is needles of conifers. Shurga males wander
among pines, biting needles from the lower branches. This forage has bitter
resinous taste, but it is rich in vitamins, and it is important in winter. Soon
females and cubs join males. As against elephants of Holocene epoch, which were
capable of mutual aid and altruism, any individual of shurga is an egoist, if
it does not relate to rescue of its own life. Therefore, when adult individuals
browse, cubs get only some branches dropped out from mouths of adult animals.
Cubs are already too large to suckle, and in search of food they have to expect
only for their own forces.
Coniferous forest can not give enough food to large herbivores, therefore the
herd, having muffled famine a little, moves to forest edge. Absolutely different
kinds of trees grow here. In Neocene due to presence of large herbivores in
fauna coniferous woods do not form the continuous tracts stretched over tens
of kilometers. They alternate with areas of deciduous forests and bushes which
provide animals with greater amount of food. But it still needs to be extracted.
The climate of Neocene became much warmer, and there is a greater amount of
water vapour in atmosphere. Therefore winters of Neocene are very snowy, and
this circumstance strongly complicates life of herbivores in Siberia. Shurga
has some advantages due to its huge size. Its tusks represent not only the protective
adaptation, but also the instrument for getting food. In winter shurga rakes
snow by lateral movements of head, and tusks serve it as something like a shovel.
Leader male knows this area very good. It moves herd out from forest, and directs
it to wide valley. Along it, under the layer of ice of one meter thick, the
river flows, and on its banks willows grow. The zone of high grasses is stretched
higher and closer to the forest they are replaced by bushes. But in winter it
is not visible – the landscape is monotonous, and all vegetation is hidden under
thick layer of snow. Heavy animals come out from the forest and sniff air. Due
to keen sense of smell they feel the food hidden in snow. Some animals start
digging snow, and the herd gradually disperses. By lateral movements of head
shurga scatters snow, and after several minutes of work digs out a hole more
than one and a half meters deep. Lumps of snow are thrown in sides, and at the
bottom of hole brownish stalks of last year’s grass appear. In autumn the nature
provides animals with much more tasty forage, but in winter even such unappetizing
grass becomes desired addition to the diet of animals. Some animals appear more
successful – they succeed to dig out the branches of evergreen bushes, and they
start to eat greedy the food got so hard.
Activity of shurga herd involves other inhabitants of Siberian forests, fast
and cautious snow harelopes. When the herd of these animals appeared from the
forest, some shurga females have noticed them against the background of trees,
and have turned anxious. The memory of waheela attack is too fresh, and animals
overreact even the appearing of harmless snow harelopes. Graceful white animals
quickly come nearer to shurga herd, moving by long bounds. This species is much
larger compared to the relatives living in Europe – forest
and Three-Rivers-Land harelopes. The remarkable
feature of snow harelopes is expressed sexual dimorphism: the adult male weighs
twice more than female and has rich “beard” of long hair growing on the lower
jaw and neck. Among harelopes coming nearer to shurga herd one tall male is
well appreciable – it has a leading position in hierarchy. Other animal represent
its harem and the young ones born in the last year.
Harelopes are cautious animals. But they have no sufficient force to defend
themselves actively, and at protection against predators hope only for their
own speed. Shurga is sluggish, but well armed animal. At the open area harelopes
prefer to graze near shurga herds – these huge animals can easily apprehend
any predator attacking harelopes as a threat of their own safety, therefore
nobody will venture to attack harelopes at the presence of these giants. Shurga
has weak sight, and low head does not allow this animal to look around. But
snow harelopes due to gracile constitution and high growth can notice the approaching
predator from apart.
Harelopes get a great benefit when feed near to shurga – this animal has huge
force and easily digs in snow deep holes, reaching up to grass. Expressed sexual
dimorphism is connected to one important task which male carries out: it digs
out snow, providing females with forage. But, as mighty shurga does the same
near them, male of snow harelope dares itself to show a kind of gallantry. It
puts front legs in the hole dug out by shurga, clears away some snow, and when
from under it edible parts of plants are shown, it starts “cooing”, calling
females with the silent throat sounds similar to gurgle. Rituals like this help
male to support the top position in herd, and give a guarantee of that females
will not go to another’s harem in courtship season. Shurga does not pay attention
to harelopes – it is a completely different kind of animals, and in instincts
of shurga the necessity of aggression concerning unrelated species is absent.
Such “loyalty” of shurgas to harelopes brings appreciable benefit to both species.
While shurga digs snow in searches of vegetation, harelopes frequently interrupt
their own feeding, looking around.
Within several days harelopes constantly accompany with shurga herd. They graze
near to these animals, and use their tracks for movement. While there is no
blizzard, the herd does not hasten to leave river banks – there is a lot of
food here. Dark bodies of shurgas are visible from apart, but it does not disturb
animals – they have reliable sentinels. And once this neighbourhood bears the
fruits. Shurga herd grazed peacefully, digging out dry reed at the riverbank,
and harelopes wandered beside, from time to time dragging off dry stalks from
under muzzles of giants. Suddenly scene of calm was broken with sharp whistle
- one female of harelopa has noticed a silhouette of swift-footed animal with
white wool flashed at the background of forest. Other harelopes began to rear
on hind legs and to peer aside the forest. And one by one their signals have
begun to sound – they have noticed the pack of waheelas left of the forest.
The overall alarm has excited shurga herd, and animals have started to form
a defensive build. Females have stood in a ring and have two cubs blocked by
their bodies, and males have closed by their bodies the intervals between bodies
of females. Now cubs appeared to be surrounded from all sides with adult individuals,
which threateningly roar and shake their heads, ready to use their tusks. In
human epoch musk oxen defended themselves from polar bear in the same way.
Waheela hunts snow harelope
Picture by Wovoka
When harelopes try to keep closer to adult individuals of shurga, huge animals perceive their movement as threat to their own posterity – protecting themselves against the enemy, they stopped differing herbivorous neighbours from predators. Now they distinguish only “owns” from “aliens”, and during the alarm harelopes have turned to “aliens”. Former sentinels of the herd now appear on unsteady border between protected giants and attacking predators.
Waheela in winter fur |
Waheelas come nearer with each minute. It is rather numerous
pack of predators – about twenty adult individuals and some young ones less
than one year old. They represent terrible force – if they’d have attacked suddenly,
they’d easily prey even healthy and strong animal. But now shurga herd has formed
against them an insuperable barrier of tusks and skin, as thick, as armour.
Predators walk around the herd, estimating its defensibility, but from any side
tusks meet them. When one of them comes nearer carelessly, adult female makes
unexpected attack and sharp jerk of head. Only speed of reaction has saved this
waheela – if the animal would delay for the part of second, female could pick
it up with tusks and throw over the whole herd. While waheelas are close, harelopes
keep close to each other, and at the approach of predators they are compelled
to depart to shurga herd. Predators do not risk attacking – though harelopes
seem to be desired prey, adult individuals of shurga roar threateningly near
to them – they can apprehend hunting for harelopes as an attack on herd. Waheelas
do not stay near shurga herd for a long time – having understood, that this
prey is inaccessible, they leave to search for easier profit soon. Some time
after that shurgas keep defensive build. Perhaps, even terrible berl would not
dare to attack them at this time. But harelopes, having seen, that danger is
no more present, return to feeding. The alarm condition passes out gradually,
and animals start to search for food again.
Searching for prey, waheelas use keen sense of smell. They analyze tens smells
brought with wind, and due to sense of smell are capable to receive the information
which can not be given by sight. Sense of smell does not deceive a clan of waheelas
– some individuals have simultaneously felt very weak smell of blood and meat.
Having defined the direction of wind brought it, waheelas started the search,
and have found soon snow covered half-eaten corpse of old individual of shurga.
Possible, this animal was lost during a blizzard some weeks ago. Waheelas have
started to dig out a snowdrift, from which weak, but a distinct smell reached,
and soon from under snow bones with pieces of skin frozen to them have appeared.
The carcass obviously served as forage for numerous animals – on meat traces
of the bird beaks and teeth of small rodents and predators are visible, and
under snow holes leading to the carcass have opened – using them, smaller eaters
came to the carcass to feed. Scattering snow, waheelas found distinct signs
of the presence of berl near this carcass – on meat traces of its teeth are
visible, and one part of the carcass is marked with its disgusting smell, and
the mark is rather fresh. Waheelas know habits of their main competitor: it
can return at the most improper time.
Having thrown a part of carcass marked by berl with snow, waheelas greedy eat
frozen hard meat. They tear it off from bones and swallow in large pieces. The
amount of meat is quite enough to be sated for the numerous pack of predators
– berl had eaten a part of interiors and only started to eat the rear leg of
carcass. But it seems, berl will return to this meat not soon – its smell is
not felt nearby, in spite of the fact that a feast of waheelas is at its height.
Taking a case, predators are fed on the carcass of shurga nutil the sunset.
They have time to be sated, fill up the rests of carcass with snow and leave
safely. In forest waheelas will find a safe place, will dig out holes in snow
to spend night in calm and satienty. They will remember a place where shurga
carcass lays, and if hunting will be unsuccessful, they will return to it. Maybe,
something would remain to them after the feast of other forest inhabitants.
At least, waheelas can crack bones and take a nutritious marrow.
Seasons gradually replace each other. Nights are very cold yet, but during the
day weather is clear, and the sun shines brightly. In such weather shurga herd
likes to be heated – animals lived in a cold too long, and sun heat makes an
obvious pleasure to them. Animals expose their sides to the sun, and dark wool
heats up well. Stirring up, animals throw out from wool conifer needles got
stuck in it and other dust, and spend a long time, heating on mountain slopes
turned to afternoon sun. If snow harelopes wander beside, shurga dares to lose
vigilance and to sleep for a while. At this time young animals frolick among
adults, chasing one after another with tails pulled up, and throw snow by head
movements, imitating adult individuals.
In the afternoon from branches of pines and fur-trees thawed snow drips, freezing
at night like transparent icicles. But every day the sun rises higher and higher
in the sky. Spring slowly, but inevitably wins winter cold. Every day weather
becomes warmer, large heaps of snow move down from branches of trees and fall
downwards, making forest impassable. In cold shady coniferous forests snow lays
untouched, but on the hillsides turned to sun it becomes friable and porous.
Seven months of severe Siberian winter are finished, and there comes the time
of changes. From hillsides streams flow, and snow on the river has darkened,
having become impregnated with water. And on thawed patches first flowers open.
Changes in a nature not always are to the best. Ice on the river has melted,
and once at night the silence was cut with a sound similar to the thunder –
the ice drift began. Spring has entered the rights, and at the rivers the time
of high water begins. The rivers of Siberia flow from the south to the north;
their upper springs had opened from the ice a long time ago, and now the turn
of middle courses has come. But here the triumph of spring turns a heavy trouble
for all live beings. Mouths of the rivers at the far north still remain frozen,
and snow started to thaw roughly and the water level in the river rises every
day. In lower courses the ice jam was formed, which has blocked a channel of
the river. Now the drain is much slower than water inflow, and flooding begins.
It happens every year, but every time it turns to the test for resistance and
endurance for all animals appeared in river valleys. Riverbanks overgrown with
reeds sink gradually, and soon water reaches middle of trunks of thickset coastal
willows. The water level continues rising – night temperature gradually passes
for a zero mark, and snow starts to thaw even in forest and at the northern
slopes of mountains. The water level raises very quickly – more, than on meter
per each day. The river fills in a significant part of valley soon, compelling
forest inhabitants to escape at the highlands. In ice-cold water numerous small
rodents swim – their holes were filled with water, and now they are compelled
to save themselves from it, gathering at the heights. Here they turn to easy
prey for owls and other predators not missing a case to have a good meal, though
they are also compelled to escape from water. Flooding also delivers set of
troubles to large animals. Shurga herd grazed at the extensive island in river
valley. In summer it was surrounded by the main channel of the river and one
of its inflows. This island is overgrown with deciduous trees and bushes, and
on its coast extensive thickets of reed stretch. Shurgas were involved by the
abundance of food exempted from under snow, but animals appeared in a trap involuntarily.
The herd had an opportunity to escape from flooding, walking along the narrow
strip of the land connected island with “mainland”, and thus only to wet legs
in thawed snow a little. But animals have preferred simply to rise above little
bit, and have continued to graze. The herd appeared in great danger – island
is too low to protect them from flooding. Under legs of shurgas rodents saved
from water at the same island scurry. At night huge animals feel, that some
rodents already potter in their wool, and shortly before dawn cold water has
touched legs of sleeping animals. The island, on which shurgas escaped from
water, has completely disappeared under water. Now animals have no choice –
they should overcome more than two hundred meters of water to reach the nearest
land which had also turned to island during some past days.
In summer heat shurgas willingly go in water. The entire herds of these animals
spend the day in river, saving themselves from heat. But spring bathing will
not deliver pleasure to anybody – water is still icy-cold, and weather is windy.
Animals sooner or later will come to appear in water, and the leader male decides
to move to the next island. It comes into water up to its belly, and stands
there for some minutes, getting used to a cold. Then it resolutely comes deeper
into the river, and swims. Adult animals one by one plunge into cold water and
follow it. One of young males hesitates for some time, but then also enters
into water. And at the riverbank only two juveniles stay – the remains of last
year’s posterity. They try to enter water, but are afraid of a cold. Having
noticed it, one female turns to them and comes back to shallow water. It extends
proboscis to these cubs and grunts slightly, as if encouraging them. At first
one cub makes a step in water, and it is followed by another one. Young animals
enter into water and swim, rowing by hooves, like adults. But they lag behind
the main herd, and adult female pushes them by head. Cold water is obviously
not pleasant for cubs – they scream and grunt plaintively, trying to follow
the herd. The crossing of herd has taken about one hour in total. Adult animals
on the approach to island began touching river bottom by hooves, and walked
last twenty meters on a firm ground at all, getting out to the coast. But cubs
having short legs were compelled to swim almost up to the riverbank, followed
by female. One cub had hardly overcome this distance – it panted, and female
had to push it some times to prevent its lagging.
At the riverbank shurga herd feels like very uncomfortably – almost all wool
at animals is wet, and the wind to which they did not pay attention earlier,
seems very cold to them now. One by one animals stir up, and male leads herd
away to small forest growing on island. And the water level continues rising.
On island shurga herd hidden among trees, avoiding the wind. The wool of animals
has gradually dried up, and they felt warmer. Some animal have departed herd
and have started to bite off twigs of trees, trying to be sated somehow. They
wander among young pines with curve trunks, searching for the rests of a last
year’s grass and browsing pine needles. But thus animals do not lose vigilance
and constantly smell air. Their fears appear not vain – one of animals feels
fresh odorous mark on tree. The disgusting smell is familiar to all herbivores
too well, and shurga, having uttered an alarm roar, has hastened to herd, and
after it the scared relatives have rushed.
Berl appeared the neighbour of shurga herd at the island; it is a large adult
male weighting about five hundred kilograms, yet not changed white winter fur
to sandy-grey summer suit. It escaped from flooding, and now searched for food
in opposite half of island. This time its prey represented some smaller rodents,
and it managed to catch from water a corpse of female of snow harelope grown
too thin during the winter and sunk during the flooding. It is clearly not enough
to feed the huge predator, and berl has decided to survey the whole island on
which it appeared. First of all it had sniffed its old marks to be convinced
that nobody of its relatives is here. Beyond the courtship season berls relate
aggressively to each other, and weak individuals turn prey of stronger cannibalistic
relatives. In any case the island could not support two of such predators, and
one of them should leave this area, or it would be simply killed by stronger
animal. Berl male has not found out marks of other relatives, but has found
something more important for itself – traces of shurgas and some heaps of manure.
Having sniffed at them, the predator followed the track.
The island, where shurga herd and berl appeared, is rather small – only about
four hundred meters long and no more than one hundred meters wide. Therefore
the predator has very soon found out the herd. It seems, huge herbivores already
waited for it and prepared for defense. They formed a dense line, protecting
two cubs, and roared threateningly, demonstrating their large tusks to berl.
The predator did not begin to risk recklessly and to try attacking the herd.
Instead of it the beast has some times passed along the line of herbivores at
the respectful distance from shurga’s tusks, estimating physical condition of
animals. It saw one of young males limping a little, adult female panting, though
reacting quickly to its approach, and even the leader male lets predator come
much closer to itself, than usually, before beginning roaring and stamping by
leg. But it was especially interested by one of last year’s cubs, which had
caught a cold during resettlement of herd to this island, and coughs frequently
now. It seems, within the next few days berl will receive worthy prey – it should
only to appear in proper time in proper place. The predator looks at herd once
more, and leaves. Behind its back the roar of shurga is heard, but it abates
quickly – animals have got tired, and there is no sense to threaten to someone,
if the predator has left.
Except for shurgas, some snow harelopes appeared at the island. Shrill whistles,
their alarm signals, reach the herd. Having heard it, adult shurgas prick up
their ears and listen attentively. They do not see a predator, but disturbing
voices of harelopes help them to define its location.
In the morning one shurga cubs feels very bad – it hardly stands on legs, and
in some hours after dawn has lain on belly. Its eyes are half-closed, and the
whole its body shivers. From time to time cub coughs loudly – illness has gone
too far, and its hours are numbered. Shortly before a sunset shurga cub has
died. When it falled without any signs of life, some adult animals have sniffed
its corpse and have walked aside. Only one female has remained near to its body.
It’s a mother of this cub, and it is still ready to protect it. Berl smells
death from apart. After shurga cub has died, it continually wanders near the
herd, in the field of view of adult animals. The herd has receded, and only
female, protecting its dead cub, has stayed near to its body. When berl comes
nearer, it stamps hooves and shakes head, showing tusks to the predator. While
it is beside, berl does not want to risk vainly. It continues walking near dead
cub, snapping to the female. The herd keeps the distance, and adult animals
behave nervously, and the remained cub searches for protection among adults,
hiding behind their bodies. At last the stress reaches its culmination – the
leader male roars and rushes to berl. The predator hasty runs off aside, and
the leader roars and throws ground by tusks, demonstrating the force to the
predator. At this time berl takes nothing again.
At night the herd of shurgas sleeps with light sensitive dream. Usually adult
animals sleep standing, and in any minute can form a defensive build or rush
to run, but cub presumes to itself to sleep lying on the ground, being in safety
among adults. Millions years of evolution perfected the caution of predators,
therefore nobody in herd has felt, as berl prowls to them in darkness. It has
much better night sight compared to shurga, therefore, when one of animals has
woken and began looking around, berl simply stopped and remained motionless
for some minutes, waiting while the animal has fallen asleep again. Predator
is led by sense of smell – it smelt dead shurga cub, lying on the ground near
the herd, and it was the target of its night sortie. Step by step the predator
came nearer to the target, and, at last, has seized a corpse of shurga cub.
It had easily lifted a corpse and had left as silently; no one adult animal
has felt the danger threatened to them this night.
In the morning wind carried up to the herd smell of blood and meat of shurga.
Having felt it, adult animals roared terribly and shaked heads, and scared cub
tried to press against every female walked near to it. Near the herd, in bushes,
berl has made a night feast to itself, and now protected the torn apart rests
of prey. When one shurga female has approached to bushes too close, berl walked
towards it, having grinned. Huge animals appeared much closer to a predator,
than the last evening, not casually – at night water has still risen, and herd
had to walk away from the flooded riverbank at night. Berl is compelled to drag
the rests of prey far away from herd – if animals will start to defend from
it, they can easily kill berl. The island gradually decreases, and everyone
appeared there feel it. Harelopes are horrified by smell of berl and its prey,
and they move closer to shurga herd.
One more day passed, and the significant part of island has disappeared under
water, and it is separated to two parts now. Now the meetings of predator and
herbivores became even more often. Berl tries to keep at the distance from large
animals, but shurga herd smells it, and aggression of animals increases gradually.
They became more irritable, and drive away from themselves even harelopes, to
which they had been unaffected before. The neighbourhood of such animals becomes
dangerous, but the next morning berl itself unloads the intensity of conditions
– it swims out to the next island, whence quite can reach coastal forests.
Waheelas escape from river flood on larger rocky island, overgrown with pine
trees, which is located downstream. Waheela differs in more flexible behaviour,
and easily finds prey in places where berl remains hungry. Since the beginning
of flooding clan of these predators wanders on the coast of island. Such behaviour
is not casual: flooding has expelled many rodents from holes and bushes, and
they search for rescue on island. Numerous rodents swim up to the coast, and
predators can easily catch them – waheelas simply clap smaller rodents by paws,
and at once eat them. It is also possible find prey at the island – rodents,
avoided the death in teeth and paws of waheelas at the coast, hide in various
casual shelters. It is enough to turn windfallen trees or to dig out the ground
under roots of tree to find any tiny mammal. Besides somewhere higher on slope
rather numerous herd of harelopes wanders, but they are inaccessible now. Waheelas
do not like to run on slopes, and harelopes can feel like in safety. They hide
among pines and juniper bushes, searching for a last year’s grass and plant
tubers. Also snow gradually thaws, and from under it spring flowers appear.
It seems, it is a pleasure for herbivores, but such impression is deceptive
– actually leaves of many early-flowering plants are bitter and even poisonous.
Therefore harelopes are compelled to eat last year’s grass, clambering on stony
slopes for it.
Flooding proceeds already for about two weeks. The most part of snow has melted,
and the water level has gradually stopped to rise. But the river has spread
to some tens kilometers, and its floodplain has turned to continuous water space,
where on separate islands various animals suffer distress, including berls and
shurga herds. But things can not proceed eternally this way. Spring gradually
moves to the north, and once under a pressure of water far in the north melted
ice jam collapses. The huge wave slides downstream, almost to the mouth of the
river, overflowing banks and low islands, breaking trees and tearing them up
by the roots, and sweeping away on all live beings on its way. And upstream
river comes back to its channel. Islands on its floodplain gradually increase
and merge the riverbank, releasing the animals suffering distress there. Herds
of shurga leave from islands where due to their efforts everything these herbivores
could eat appeared destroyed. Harelopes also go to search for food, and rodents,
at last, can settle freely and dig out holes again instead of ones water had
filled.
Some animals find a lot of food at the drained floodplain of river. Waheelas
are among such species. These animals express surprising ecological plasticity
and flexibility of behaviour. In places where there were lower areas of flood
plain, rich prey waits for them. Fishes, having swam across flooded river valley,
appeared trapped when the river has suddenly returned to its channel, and now
became only a food for predators. Waheelas in small groups surround such pools,
and try to cast fish ashore by paws. Sometimes they cucceed to do it, but more
often fishes hide in depth of pool. But it isnot for a long – within the coming
weeks such pools and temporary ponds will dry up, and waheelas will necessarily
pick up their share of prey, if they will not be outstripped by any other predator.
Even berl occasionally inspects such reservoirs, especially if there are large
fishes in water.
Corpses of animals sunk during the flooding represent one more source of food
for predators. More often these ones are harelopes – these animals may grow
thin badly during the winter, and in such condition they are simply not able
to struggle against flooding. The river carries them away, and they perish from
overcooling or simply sink. Sometimes even mighty shurga appears a victim of
the river. Sometimes large animals try to cross the river on fragile spring
ice, and fall down to the water. Such food of various degrees of decomposition
necessarily finds the eater. In winter and in spring, when food sources are
too short, it is no opportunity to choose, and even rodents do not disdain meat.
But the nature already prepares for herbivorous animals a holiday which will
last until the first snow. Plants react to thawing of snow and the prolongation
of daytime. Germs swell and burst, and underground rhizomes wake up and give
sprouts. On bushes and deciduous trees leaves start growing, and after them
branches of coniferous trees are decorated with border of young sprouts with
gentle light needles.
Typical plant community of Eastern Siberia in Neocene epoch is still a coniferous
forest named as taiga. In river valleys continuous thickets of coniferous plants
are replaced by small-leaved deciduous forests, and their basic tree species
are birch and aspen. At wetlands and along the riverbanks willows expand. Perhaps,
it is difficult to overestimate the value of this unpretentious and fast-growing
tree in life of herbivores. On willow trees traces of winter feeding of shurga
are visible: such trees have short clumsy trunks plentifully branching in the
top part. In winter, when snow covers everything with a thick layer, twigs of
willows serve as forage for shurga and harelopes, and these animals bite twigs
up to the level of snow cover. In spring on such trees long shoots of the current
year grow like a brush. And moreover, willow blossoming before other plants,
is the first melliferous plant, supporting the existence of insects in the first
warm days of spring.
Bitten off branches and curved trunks are not the only display of influence
of herds of large herbivores to a landscape. From height of the bird’s flight
it is visible, as the landscape of Neocene forests of Siberia has changed compared
to landscape existed in these places within human memory. Very characteristic
feature of a landscape is the occurrence of wide “glades” overgrown with grass,
bushes and fast-growing small-leaved trees. They stretch more often in places
where the landscape has no abrupt heights. They frequently lead down to river
valleys, and always bypass rocky outcrops with abrupt slopes. They can meander,
but their general direction is always the same – from the south to the north.
Perhaps, it is the most essential result of influence of megafauna of Neocene
Siberia to the landscape. Such features of landscape are named as “obda roads”,
and actually represent migratory ways of large herbivores, which are used during
millenia. Thick-foreheaded obda is the largest species of ground mammals of
Siberia, whose shoulder growth reaches two meters. In size obda resembles the
elephant, but its family tree begins from hares of Holocene epoch: it is a largest
kind of hoofed lagomorphs, new group of mammals known from early Neocene. Harelopes
of various species are its gracile relatives.
On “obda roads” only the quickly restoring vegetation can grow only. Certainly,
in such places seeds of photophilous coniferous trees frequently sprout – more
often it is a pine tree. But it will be hardly possible to them to grow more,
than to half-meter tall – it is a bottom level on which obda can feed. Biting
off the tops of coniferous trees, obdas cause delay of their growth, and even
the death of trees. Each year, using “obda roads” tens thousands of these giants
walk to the north and back, and slowly growing coniferous trees simply have
no time to restore the damage put by them. It is the main reason of prosperity
of strictly different type of vegetation – grasses and bushes – on “obda roads”.
The central part of “obda roads” is overgrown with graminoids, which can grow
more than one meter tall in conditions of Siberian summer. And some kinds of
motley grass, especially perennial creeping stem grasses, uplift theis stalks
and inflorescences on two-meter height. On edges, where large herbivores damage
vegetation in less degree, bushes and fast-growing trees like birches or aspens
expand. And literally in several tens meters from edge of “obda road” coniferous
trees can exist quite safely and reproduce normally from seeds. Thanking to
“obda roads” species from other natural zones – steppes and deciduous forests
– penetrate in area of coniferous woods. Snow harelope is one of such kinds,
which has managed to adapt to rigorous climate of Siberia. Shurga also prefers
to feed in winter on “obda roads”, where it digs out from under snow the rests
of last year’s grass and bushes, and also gnaws bark fron young branches of
deciduous trees.
When weather becomes warmer, waves of migrants sweep across Siberia to the north.
These are mainly birds of passage, but there are also much larger animals. One
of migrating species is obda – the giant of Siberia. These animals spend winter
in the south, where the snow cover is lesser. They live in herds in forests,
eating various kinds of vegetative forage, and in spring move after warming
to the north. Some of these giants stay in taiga, but some populations move
far to the north and almost reach the coast of Arctic ocean.
Obda is very similar to Pleistocene wooly rhinoceros, but differs from it in
considerably larger size. Horn growing on obda’s head gives it the similarity
to this animal. It stretches along nose bridge, forming on the tip of muzzle
of this animal something like a shovel. By lateral movements of head obda digs
out snow to reach vegetation. In similar way other herbivores of northern latitudes
act. But obda’s neighbor, shurga, digs snow with tusks, and the skewhorn, kind
of deer living in Greenland, uses a forward antler of fancifully growing horn.
Migration of obdas represents one of the most majestic shows in Siberian nature.
At first “obda roads” seem absolutely deserted – only wind swings branches of
bushes and young grass. Herds of shurga wander in these places and feed on young
shoots of bushes, and harelopes willingly graze on grass, choosing sappy and
sweetish shoots of some local plants. But one fine day everything is changed.
Probably, digging animals feel changes the first. They hear the remote booming
footfall, which comes nearer with each hour. And here they are – obdas, the
largest animals of Siberia. The first herds are not numerous – they include
no more than ten adult individuals and are made of barchelor males. They hurry
up to rich pastures of the North, and hardly will stay in taiga. At first along
“obda roads” only separate small herds pass, but with each hour the picture
changes. Gradually herds become larger and larger, and start to go without any
space between them. They stretch to hundreds meters, and it becomes impossible
to define, where one herd ends and another one begins. Animals move in measured
step, not speeding up and almost not stopping for foraging. They bite off bunches
of grass and bush branches on the move, and instead of it leave portions of
manure. Marche of obda herds lasts almost continuously about one week. After
that “obda road” has completely different look – the most part of a grass is
eaten or trampled, bushes are broken and picked, and along the whole track heaps
of obda manure lay. But this order of things, formed in nature for millions
of years, is completely normal, and is an integral part of natural processes.
Browsed bushes will give lateral shoots soon, the grass will rise, and manure
pieces will be destroyed by maggots and grubs.
Some herds of obda finish their wanderings in taiga. They turn off from the
“road” and go down to river walleys, where graze in large herds. From the ecological
point of view obda in Neocene Siberia is an analogue of the elephant in the
African savannas of human epoch. It makes forest stand sparser, rumpling and
breaking young growth of trees, and also promotes thus to distribution of open
landscapes which serve as the house to other herbivores. On areas of the ground
free from forest the grasses grow, forming thus a basis for highly productive
communities of live organisms.
Obdas had not finished their moult yet – in summer brownish wool patches of
long winter wool of white color are kept. During the moult skins of animals
itch strongly, and at this time at these animals lonely growing trees, which
sometimes stand on “obda roads”, are very popular. They are kept since animals
began to use such track, and represent the rests of old vegetation. Branches
on trunks of these trees are broken approximately up to three-meter height.
It indicates that obdas scratch against these trees, leaving on them flocks
of old wool. But the wool keeps on bark and broken branches not for long – birds
quickly take it for laying in their nests.
But before birds will find this wool, it must have time to serve to some other
animals, and it is extremely undesirable to them to meet birds. In flocks of
obda wool small woolen lumps hang here and there. These are cocoons of obda
wool moth, a separate kind of moths, whose caterpillars eat wool growing directly
on obda’s body. In white winter wool cocoons of these moths are especially large
– from them the largest representatives of this species will burst, having wingspan
about 20 millimeters, which is very large size for tineid moths. Adult insects
will normally hatch in any case, whether there is their cocoon on the ground,
or in wool of animal. Caterpillars of obda wool moth developed in wool of this
animal during the whole winter, and because of it moths to which they will turn,
would become the largest representatives of this kind. Adult individuals of
obda wool moth after pairing can lay eggs in wool of any other mammal – during
the summer this kind of moths will give two more generations, which will develop
successfully in wool of various inhabitants of Siberia. But last generation
of moths should necessarily find adult obda, in which wool caterpillars will
develop during the whole winter.
On “combing trees” not only obda wool stays. Snow harelopes also moult and come
to these trees to scratch and to remove falling out winter wool. Like obdas,
they have kept the ability of hares, their far ancestors, to change color of
wool for winter. And when spring comes, the long white wool comes out, and animals
scratch against the same trees. For some time animals look skewbald, but gradually
winter colouring vanishes, and on body of animals their summer colouring appears
– cross-striped pattern with dim dark vertical strips.
In spring it is rather noisy in the sky above Siberia – flocks of birds move
to the north to take advantage of gifts of short, but rich summer. Forests fill
with birds’ trills – songbirds fly from the south, and at once start to prepare
to nesting. Males occupy nesting sites and start singing, involving females
and warning contenders that the territory is occupied. One of the best singers
at the territory of Eastern Siberia is a small bird called Siberian woolcreeper.
It flies to the north during the migration of obda – it is connected to features
of way of life of these birds. Males of this species with brilliant pitch-black
plumage and motley black-and-white stomach at once after the arrival to the
nesting area start searching of tree trunk hollows suitable for hatching the
posterity. The best hollows are ones in large trees growing near to “obda roads”
and other places where large herbivores graze. For every such tree-trunk hollow
males are ready to battle up to the last. They drive each other along the trunk
near the entrance to the hollow, trying to seize contender’s tail. Challenging
male perches on trunk above the contender and raises wings, showing to it bright
red rump feathers at the background of white tail with black margin. The competition
between males may be very strict, because the number of females one male can
couple with depends directly on the size of tree-trunk hollow, and spacious
hollows are obvious in deficiency. Siberian woolcreepers are polydins, and females
of the same harem bring up posterity in common. Male owning only small hollow
can have in its harem only two females, and especially successful males become
owners of a harem of 5-6 females. Having won the right to the nesting place,
male starts to sing loudly, involving females to chosen tree-trunk hollow. The
song of Siberian woolcreeper includes many parts and frequently consists almost
entirely of the sounds adopted by this bird from ots neighbours – Siberian woolcreepers
are excellent imitators. When the harem is gathered, efforts on arrangement
of the nest are entirely the job of females. Male only pairs with them and protects
territory from contenders.
The best laying for nest is wool of animals. To the moment of nest building
at Siberian woolcreepers at large herbivorous mammals the moult is finished
and birds do not have problems with search of material for nest. When the small
herd of snow harelopes comes to “combing tree” of obdas, they are already waited
by some birds, including females of Siberian woolcreeper. Birds of other species
are usually very cautious, and wait, while harelopes will depart from tree,
but woolcreepers have got used to act much easier. Harelopes are not afraid
of these birds, and birds feel like confidently at the presence of large herbivores.
They safely perch on backs of harelopes and start pulling white wool, which
is sticking out in large flocks from their sides. Wool keeps unsteadily and
can be easily separated from skin; therefore soon woolcreeper females fly off
to nests, dragging off in beaks scraps of white hair resembling magnificent
white moustaches. Such procedure is obviously pleasant to harelopes: when Siberian
woolcreeper perches on back or side of animal, harelope freezes, trying not
to frighten off a bird swarming up its skin and pulling out the bunches of old
wool causing an itch.
The gem of ornithofauna of Neocene Siberia is the large graceful bird – taiga
crail. It is a representative of large group of rail descendants, which have
replaced the cranes not sustained anthropogenous pressure in Holocene. Other
representatives of this group inhabit wetlands of Western
Siberia, and live even in rigorous Greenland.
But taiga crails, as against them, prefer dry habitats and do not compete to
close kinds. Crails fly to Eastern Siberia soon after obda migration. Their
flocks are easily recognizeable among spring migrants – crails differ in very
large size (wingspan about one and a half meters), characteristic black-and-white
colouring of the bottom side of body, and fly, having stretched as a long rank.
Flocks of these birds may number up to fifty individuals though usually there
is lesser number.
Taiga crails have done very much a long journey. They wintered at the Pacific
coast of Asia or in the south of Japan Islands, and have overcome thousand kilometers
before have reached native grounds. The route of these birds at first ran above
the coast of Korean peninsula, and then they flied above the land. Flocks of
crails moved above edges of former Gobi desert, turned to bushy
savanna in Neocene. Then they have made difficult flight over mountains
of Central Asia, lasting for many days, had stopped off near Baikal
and after that moved to the north.
Flight is completed, and birds can have a rest. They land on “obda roads”, far
away from bushes, where predators may watch for them. Now the birds tired with
flight represent too easy prey, and excessive caution will be useful.
Within several next days taiga crails have a rest and gain strength before courtship
season. They hunt insects, gathering them in grass. At this time it is dangerous
to rodents and reptiles to come nearer to these birds – crails hunt them, pursuing
in grass by run and putting exact impact by pointed beak. They are capable to
kill and swallow entirely even snakes about one meter long. Birds gradually
settle into shape, and at some areas of “obda roads” males spontaneously begin
displaying separate elements of courtship dances – they suddenly start to whirl
with wings stretched, or dart off and run some tens meters, and then sharply
stop and continue search for food. The nature dictates to animals the certain
rhythms of life, and they are compelled to submit.
Two days pass, and at the “obda roads” courtship games of crails begin. In cold
spring morning shortly before dawn male roll-call begins. Voice of crail represents
lingering hoarse call similar to crow croak. The first male started calling
in night darkness, when in the east only the edge of horizon has brightened
slightly. Having called for some times, it has broken off. There was a silence
for some minutes, interrupted only by whistles and trills of songbirds hidden
in bushes and foliage of trees. Then in the distance another male started calling.
It has called for some minutes, and also has calmed down. When the sky in the
east has turned pink, at once two males in different parts of “obda road” have
started to call in harmonious duet. When they stopped call, the relay race was
accepted by one more male. After that another male started to call, very close
to it. And then one more male cried, hiding somewhere in bushes. Gradually male
calls became more and more often. Intervals between them did not exceed several
seconds any more, and when the edge of sun disk has appeared above horizon,
male calls followed continuously one by one, muffling voices of other birds.
The sun rised, shining calling birds. Crails have gathered for courtship games
in numerous flock. Males stood among grass, having bolt upright. Before calling
every male bent its head, and, having sharply thrown it up, uttered long call.
Females, on the contrary, stood at this time in grass, having lowered heads.
With sunrise excitation of males has reached apogee. One by one they have started
to spread wings and to swirl, displaying to females surrounding them black-and-white
pattern on bottom side of wings and white spots on sides of bodies. After several
minutes of such swirling male rushed after female chosen among others, and was
compelled to catch her up, manoeuvring among numerous congeners. If the male
was attractive for female, it just stopped soon. But if the female did not like
male for some reasons, she simply flied up to land some meters apart among the
congeners, and to get lost among them. And male started to swirl in courtship
dance again.
When the sun raises above horizon highly enough, courtship games of crails gradually
stop. If the couple managed to form, both birds occupy the territory in bushes
bordering “obda road”, and during some next days protect its borders, furiously
expelling congeners. Every day the number of birds, taking part in courtship
rituals, decreases. Gradually “obda roads” appear separated to the set of nesting
territories of crails, and the last generated pairs are compelled to be content
with the worst sites or to win a part of territory from the birds occupied it
earlier. At the fifth morning after the beginning of courtship games only few
widely spaced males met sunrise by calls. Any of them can hardly form a pair
in this breeding season. And their more successful relatives are already engaged
in household affairs – they dig out a shallow well in bush, in which the first
egg will be laid soon.
One couple of crails has successfully chosen a place for nesting. Birds have
found each other in the first day of courtship games, and they has had the luck
to occupy almost freely a good territory, where the group of bushes grew in
thickets of grass. Male has successfully beaten off attempts of several couples
to occupy a part of their nesting area, and soon its female began to hatch a
clutch of three eggs, carefully hidden among bushes.
Crail female incubated eggs, turning them by paws regularly. From time to time
it afforded to itself to rise and to stretch paws tired of immovability. Sitting
in nest, it cleaned the plumage of dust and parasites. Every small animal, appeared
within reach of its beak, became its meal. Now the female was engaged in the
most important occupation in its annual cycle – rearing of posterity. And the
parental instinct appeared stronger than any another one, even a self-preservation
instinct. Therefore female has not abandoned the nest, when near to it large
animal with fluffy spotty wool and long teeth jutting out from closed mouth
had appeared. Huge animal moved absolutely silently, sniffing air and looking
over the district. Its attention had been drawn by careless movement of crail
female, and animal moved directly to it. Protecting the clutch, the bird has
jumped from nest and has sharply stretched wings, exposing black-and-white inner
side of them. But it could do no more – huge paw has immediately broken bird’s
body, crushing it to flat mass of feathers and flesh. With the only claw huge
spotty animal has broken off bird’s body, and with several movements of rough
tongue covered with corneous spikes has literally licked off meat and bones
in common, holding the body of killed bird by paw. In some next minutes crail
eggs crackled one by one have in mouth of the beast, and it had swallowed them
right with egg shells. Then animal moved out, leaving at the place of tragedy
only feathers stained with blood with the rests of skin of bird, and the empty
nest.
The megafauna of herbivores derivates mega-predators inevitably. One of them
is berl, living in forests of Siberia the year round. But in summer after herds
of obda one more huge hunter comes to the north there – the Siberian sabertooth,
immemorial “shepherd” of obda herds.
Saber-like canine repeatedly arose in the line of vertebrates leading from primitive
reptiles to mammals. Such canines had been present at carnivorous theromorph
reptiles of Permian and Triassic periods, and also early Tertiary nimravids
from among placental mammals, and some marsupial mammals of Late Tertiary. In
felid family saber-like canine developed some times independently. The prehistoric
humans face with representatives of saber-toothed cats in Africa, Eurasia and
North America, but mass extinction of megafauna in Holocene had destroyed deeply
specialized saber-toothed predators. But in Neocene saber teeth evolved simultaneously
at representatives of two families of predators. The deadlynetta,
large saber-toothed animal of viverrid family lives in Africa, and in Siberia
such canines had appeared again at one representative of fairly depleted felid
family – at this time the descendant of lynces obtained this weapon.
Siberian sabertoothes became the only migrating species among felids, and each
year they begin travel to the north after their basic prey, obdas. Some individuals
follow their prey far to the north, but the significant part of these cats dissipates
at the great space of Central Siberian Plateau. The enough plenty of large mammals
at the extensive territory is necessary for these animals.
The animal which has killed crail female is an adult female of Siberian sabertooth.
She does not aspire to hunt large prey – this female is pregnant and should
give birth soon, therefore she avoids attacking dangerous animals and is content
for a while with casual small prey. She needs to find a place for a den where
her cubs will be born, but it is very uneasy to make it – she should not give
out a location of den by behaviour. Strong ruthless berl and uniquitous curious
waheela can simply eat her cubs, therefore female approaches to a choice of
place for rearing of posterity very carefully.
Last frosts still cover blades of grass with hoarfrost, and when there is no
frost, nights all the same are still cool. However weather becomes better every
day, and the nature responds to these changes. Despite of night colds, plants
grow very quickly, and for the Siberian megafauna there come times of abundance.
Snow harelopes graze in tall grass. These herbivores eat undersized grasses
and the bottom part of stalks of graminoids, therefore they find a lot of food
in places where obdas have passed, biting only tops of plants because of high
growth. Ability of changing of wool colouring according to seasons is very useful
to these animals, which have set of enemies in a nature. In winter white colouring
makes these animals invisible from apart, and in summer due to indistinct vertical
strips snow harelopes are hardly distinctive in grass. But even such colouring
does not save them from the predators hunting with the help of sense of smell,
therefore animals do not lose caution. Large tall male regularly rises on rear
legs and looks over vicinities, keeping a biped pose for some second. While
predators do not threaten, animals can graze quietly. The posterity of harelopes
is born early, and every female gives birth to couple of cubs at once. They
are born well developed, and already in first days of life try to graze. Cubs
differ from adult animals in very precise striped colouring. In case of danger
they simply nestle against the ground and freeze. Also at them odorous glands
are not advanced, therefore predators hardly can find out them. At this time
harelope females withdraw a predator from posterity. For this purpose they behave
deliberately carelessly, drawing attention of predator, and forcing it to chase
them. It is a dangerous game, but harelopes win it due to endurance and speed.
Harelope cubs must develop quickly in order to gather sufficient weight to winter
and to survive in such rigorous time. But all the same in the first winter about
half of all cubs, born in summer, perishes. Harelopes have numerous enemies
– more often waheela preys them, though sometimes these animals turn prey to
berl, especially in deep snow, where they can not accelerate necessary speed.
But in spring and in summer harelopes have one good ally – small bird, Siberian
woolcreeper. While swarms of blood-sucking insects have not appeared yet, these
birds peck lice from wool of harelopes – these parasites constantly live in
wool of animals. When one harelope cub starts sucking milk, the bird perches
on its back, and cub jumps scaredly aside and hides in grass. It does not understand
yet, who is a friend, and who is an enemy, but adult animals willingly entrust
to birds clearing of their wool, and cub will get used to presence of birds
soon. And the benefit brought by woolcreepers as sentinels will strengthen their
union even more.
Not all birds, however, relate to harelopes favourably. When animals graze,
one female of a harem comes closer to bushes to nibble soft leaflets. But it
does not notice crail nest hidden in grass. Bird female incubates clutch, not
giving itself out up to last moment. Its plumage is well combined with color
of grass, and puzzlework of gleam and shadow among bushes makes black-and-white
colouring of head and neck imperceptible. Harelopes do not represent any danger
to these birds, but can step on eggs quite casually. Therefore, when harelope
makes some more steps aside nest, female of taiga crail stands, ready to protect
its posterity. It sharply jumps from nest and stretches wings, displaying black-and-white
colouring of lower side of wings appreciable from apart. Harelope was frightened
a lot of silhouette, which has suddenly arisen before it, has sharply recoiled
aside and has uttered shrill whistle. Its movement and alarm signal have frightened
the whole group of harelopes, and they have fallen apart, highly jumping up
in grass. And crail female, having convinced that nothing threatens to the nest,
has continued brooding.
In shurga herd new cubs also had appeared. Shurga females one by one have brought
posterity, and one female even gave birth to twins. Young animals can walk right
after birth, and soon can even run on a level with herd. The wool of newborn
cubs has lighter shade, than at adult individuals, and on this background along
the back dark strip is stretched, and there are some dark spots on sides. This
is an inheritance got from a wild boar – the distant ancestor of shurga. Cubs
suckle fat milk and grow quickly. During the first some days of life they eat
only milk, but further start expressing interest in food of adult animals. As
against timid harelope cubs, young shurga is much quieter, and even expresses
some curiosity to Siberian woolcreepers perching on backs and sides of adult
animals. When one woolcreeper perched on side of shurga female and started searching
for parasites, cub of this female has extended proboscis towards it, and has
tried to reach a bird. But woolcreeper simply flushed and perched on back of
animal, where cub will not reach it. But one more woolcreeper perched right
on cub’s back and started searching in its wool with pointed beak.
Shurga herd gives way respectfully, when across it obdas stride. As against
belligerent shurgas, obda has quiet and peaceful behaviour, but in herd of these
animals there are young ones had not lost yet touches with mothers. Having been
born in the last year, they have stopped to suck milk only recently, but still
keep near to mothers, receiving necessary protection from them. And at this
time obda females already bear the second cub, and they give birth soon. Therefore
cubs, born the last year, will come to leave mother and to rely only for safety
of herd as a whole. When pregnancy comes to end, obda females turn very suspicious,
and can easily attack any animal, in which they will feel any sign of danger.
And it is unsafe even for shurga armed with tusks to cause aggression at these
huge animals.
At the end of spring the grass grows so high, that harelope females wander up
to the belly in wavy brownish-green sea of graminoids, and their cubs hardly
can look round, not rising on rear legs. Due to its growth shurga will not be
lost in grass sea, even being a cub: when the herd is grazing, cubs play, and
their heads, without frightening tusks yet, and striped backs are seen in grass.
Graminoids are rich in silica and too firm for cubs, at which milk teeth just
have started to come through, but adult animals willingly eat grass with roots.
This animal uses tusks like elephants of Holocene epoch: it digs out grass with
them. The majority of animals of this species are right-handers; therefore the
right tusk at them is more erased and constantly soiled with ground. Shurga
picks up sod cover by tusk, and with strong jerk pulls out at once a bunch of
grass. Having taken it with proboscis and having struck against the ground some
times to shake soil from roots, shurga eats bunch of grass entirely. Soil helps
digestion of animal, preventing diarrhea and supplying the beast with mineral
substances. After feeding of shurga herd the ground on rather vast area appears
turned upside down and dug over. Such traces of shurga’s feeding are easily
seen from the height of the bird’s flight – dense sod of graminoids has no time
to develop there yet, and these parts of “obda roads” expose numerous colours
of motley grass flowers against the background of brownish-green carpet of graminoids.
With each year, however, they turn paler and paler, and for the third year graminoid
sod is almost restored. On sites where the sod is damaged by feeding of shurga,
harelopes prefer to graze, diversifying monotonous and dryish graminoid diet
with sappy and soft motley grasses.
Obdas browse young foliage on birches. Tall growth and mobile neck allow these
animals feeding at the height inaccessible for shurgas and harelopes, therefore
obda easily gets on with these animals, not competing to them. The upper lip
of obda is doubled, and its halves can move independently from each other. Due
to such adaptation animal can browse leaves even from tips of branches. If there
is a necessity, obda can rise on rear legs, leaning front legs against tree
trunk. But not any tree can sustain weight of such giant. Also pregnant females
are too heavy and clumsy for such trick.
Woolcreepers jump on backs and sides of animals, gathering insects. Only flies
involved with manure and heavy smell emitted by animals are their catch yet.
But soon the summer will come, and their food will be plenty. Beasts allow dexterous
birds a lot: woolcreepers perch on their muzzles, thrust beaks in nostrils,
and even catch flies near eyes, where importunate insects drink saltish plaintive
liquid of animals. Activity of these birds is especially desirable in serene
sunny day, when animals presume to themselves to have a rest, and insects, on
the contrary, are very active.
In the morning there was a light frost, but in daytime sun burns appreciably,
and large animals gradually fall into drowsy condition. Large obdas lied down
in shadow of young birches at the edge of “obda road”. Male browses foliage
from bushes lazily, even not rising. It especially likes slightly sweetish twigs
with the inflorescences emitting strong aroma. And females have fallen asleep
one by one. In some days they should give birth to cubs, and they need a rest
a lot. Cubs born in the last year play now – two males imitate a duel of adult
animals, tapping each other by noses. In some years on their noses large horns
will grow, with which help it will be possible to rake snow in winter. And young
female is engaged in more peaceful occupation: it eats. But, before picking
a bunch of grass, it imitates getting food in winter – it moves muzzle above
the grass from side to side several times. Thus it carelessly inhales pollen
and sneezes some times, and one of adult females looks at her with agitation.
Shurga herd also turns languid. Some animals even lay on the ground, having
extended legs freely, when other animals wander beside. Shurga cubs also play,
imitating movements of adults, when they get forage. But their toy is only small
bunch of grass fallen off from sod dug out by adult animal and have not been
eaten. Cubs push it with their muzzles, trying to undermine with not grown yet
tusks, and seize with proboscises. Having chewed grass, not so eatable yet,
one cub spits it out, and then game proceeds, but at this time the grass is
chewed by another cub. One of shurga cubs, tired and having got hungry, decided
to fortify itself with food. It runs up to mother having a rest and laying on
one side, and sticks to its udder. When cub started sucking, female has begun
to wag tail from pleasure, like any doggie did.
Woolcreepers do not stop their work for any minute. They dexterously seize flies
settling on bodies of animals. While nestlings are not hatched yet, birds can
freely eat the caught insects, gathering weight. But during the rearing of nestlings
they will grow thin a lot. Birds do not lose vigilance – some times for this
day they were exposed to attacks of various birgs of prey, and one birds already
became somebody’s prey. Therefore each minute some pairs of eyes take a view
of vicinities. And the suspicious movement in grass near to edge of “obda road”
had not escaped from their eyes.
The alarm signal of Siberian woolcreeper sounds very loudly and unpleasantly,
especially against the background of other sounds of nature. But large animals
know by experience, that this bird is mistaken very seldom, when utters it,
and some animals already saw, that happens to those ones, which react insufficiently
quickly. Call of alarm has repeated, and then at once some woolcreepers have
called loudly and shrilly. Danger obviously was very great. Obdas have reacted
very quickly – mighty animals have risen from grass one by one, and huge male
began sniffing air. The casual breath of wind has brought a smell, which is
well known to it from the youngest age – smell associated with fear, blood and
death. It is a smell of very large spotty animal with long teeth, which silently
steals and easily kills even strong animals. Siberian sabertooth.
Shurgas, having caught an alarm signal, began forming a defensive build. Female
feeding its cub has sharply standed on legs, not having trampled its own offspring
only casually; it squealed shrilly and has jumped aside from her. Other cubs,
squealing in fear, rushed to their mothers, searching for protection at them.
Scared harelopes gathered in herd, having driven all cubs together, and have
hastened to shurga herd, expecting to be in safety near to these animals.
And from grass the originator of all this alarm has risen – large female of
Siberian sabertooth. Three days ago in secluded den in depth of forest she gave
birth to two cubs. And now female must feed well to have an opportunity to bring
up both of them. About this day she kept in forest very silently, trying to
not give out a location of its den. Prey of the female included only small animals
– snakes, birds nesting on the ground and their clutches, rodents, which holes
she could search and dig out, and even carrion. Once for the last few days she
managed to prey newborn harelope cub, but it was the greatest accident – cub
was born blind, and female has simply refused to feed it. And then she has gave
birth to her own cubs – two small blind creatures, continuously peeping and
creeping on floor of den – wide and deep hole dug out by the female under roots
of the century-old pine fallen by wind. They needed to eat, and the parental
instinct has given determination to the female. The predator came to large prey
hunting, which threatened to turn to great trouble now. Female of sabertooth
heard disturbing call of tiny bird searching in wool of one of animals as good,
as these giant creatures did. And this tiny creature has broken the whole hunting.
Now all animals are disturbed, and it would be hardly possible to prey any of
them. And literally one minute ago the female of Siberian sabertooth hoped very
much to prey large harelope female, wandering at some distance from herd. She
imagined what she needed to do – to creep under covering of grass to the distance
of some steps, then to run a little and to bring down this animal with an impact
of her paw. Male could not hunt this way – it is too robust for such purpose.
And then, when prey wheezes and writhes in claws, it is needed only to strike
canines in the basis of its neck – and life will leave prey in stream of blood.
And then it would be the pleasant feeling of satiety and inexpressible tenderness
to two small live lumps, which poke into her side with their tiny muzzles. But
call of one bird has broken all plans.
The loud roar of shurga herd has merged with trumpet voices of disturbed obdas
and whistling of frightened harelopes. Birds frightened with movement of animals
rushed above herd, crying loudly. And huge animals have started to move towards
the sabertooth female. Obdas stamped thick legs loudly, and shurgas roared and
swung heads, swashing tusks against the ground and throwing up grass sogs pulled
out with roots. Cubs, already hiding behind their backs, or still moving in
bellies and preparing to be born, had transformed animals from the scared bulk
of meat and bones to the formidable opponents, ready to battle for the posterity.
And for the sake of preservation of her posterity the female of Siberian sabertooth
was compelled to recede. This is a price of specialization to large prey hunting
– sometimes hunted one turns to dangerous opponent.
The Siberian summer is short, but very hot. Plants develop very quickly, and
herds of giants do not feel any lack of forage. But after the heat there comes
one more feature of Siberian nature, transforming life of animals into the kind
of torture. In river valley there are shallow and well warmed up ponds, and
in forests there is lot of small bogs. And here various aquatic inhabitants
are prevailed by larvae of various dipterans – mosquitoes and midges. When stable
warm weather is established, their mass metamorphosis takes place, and in air
clouds of tiny blood-sicking insects swarm.
From apart it seems, that above herds kind of grey fog hangs. Actually it is
a dense swarm of blood-sucking insects, which continuously attack animals. Short
summer wool of animals is not a serious obstacle for insects, and clouds of
mosquitoes settle on backs and sides of animals. In some places they are so
numerous, that skins of animals seem grey because of congestions of mosquitoes.
Places of their stings itch, forcing animals to scratch against trees, and a
smell of the skin scratched raw involves insects even more. Midges prefer to
attack eyes and nostrils of animals. Their swarms happen so numerous, that animals
inhale them and sneeze after that for a long time.
Mosquitoes exhaust animals with their stings and suck out lots of blood. Animals
are compelled to spend a lot of time to wave away from them, and try to eat
more grass in order to compensate somehow losses from mosquito stings. Appetites
of mosquitoes are really insatiable. If not driven away, they are quite capable
to exsanguinate an animal of size of harelope female within several hours. Mosquitoes
and midges are active at night, and in daytime they are replaced by horseflies
and botflies. Stings of horseflies are very painful, and even huge obda is nervous
a lot, having caught their characteristic hum. But flight of the botfly causes
a much more fright in animals. These insects do not suck blood, being adults,
but lay on bodies of animals their eggs, and botfly larvae develop as parasites
of animals under skin or in respiratory tract and frontal sinuses of skull.
Obda and shurga suffer a lot from blood-sucking insects, and because of it are
compelled to change a habitual way of life. Pursued by bloodsuckers, shurgas
come to marshlands and wallow in mud. Numerous herds of these animals occupy
riverbanks and diligently smear mud on their skins, wallowing in it or throwing
it on their bodies with proboscises. Heavy animals dig out to themselves holes
in mud and lay there long, enjoying cool. Drying up, mud sticks their wool in
a kind of armour, and temporarily protects from an attack of insects.
Occurrence of posterity in songbirds precisely coincides with mass appearing
of mosquitoes, and around of herd of mammals numerous birds hover, gathering
food for nestlings. Woolcreepers are the specialized cleaners of large animals,
and hover above them in numerous flocks. These birds are especially numerous
at the edges of “obda roads”, near to trees, where these birds nest. Brownish
females and shining black males of woolcreepers gather on sides of animals and
feed, filling with insects extensible hypoglossal sacs. In hollow of large tree
the whole brood of nestlings waits for food – their own and another’s ones –
therefore females try to gather enough supply of food. Large animals relate
to presence of woolcreepers very favourably, and now even cubs are not frightened,
when these birds stir their wool with beaks. But woolcreepers catch insects
rather selectively – they prefer larger horseflies and botflies, leaving the
privilege to catch mosquitoes to other birds.
Having filled a hypoglossal sac with insects, woolcreeper females one by one
return to their common nest. In deep hollow there is their numerous brood. In
collective nest two tens nestlings grow up at once, and they all want to eat.
Bird perched at the edge of entrance to the hollow is met with squeak of several
hungry nestlings at once – while they grow, they are ready to eat almost continuously.
Woolcreeper female clings wood by claws and goes down in depth of the hollow,
and some nestlings hold opened beaks towards it. The mucous membrane on edges
of their mouths forms the special rolls reflecting poor light reaching the lower
part of hollow. It makes opened nestlings’ mouths visible better, and females
is simply not able to refuse them to feed. Therefore a content of hypoglossal
sac appears immediately in mouth of hungriest of them, which pulls its head
higher than others. It is quite unimportantly, whose this nestling is – all
woolcreeper females equally willingly feed all nestlings, and all young birds
have identical chance of survival. All insects brought by female disappear in
gullet of nestling. Having swallowed last insect, it turns to female by back
and produces a portion of dung covered in slime membrane, and female carries
it away from nest. And the full nestling is replaced at the “feeding place”
near the entrance by hungrier one. Sometimes even male – father of all these
nestlings – brings food to them. But more often he looks out for birds of prey,
which do not miss an opportunity to attack woolcreepers searching for parasites
in wool of shurga and obda.
Obda also has its special defenders. In wool of these mammal colonies of tiny
bats of a separate species settle – obda bats. These chiropterans spent winters
in the south, being in hibernation among colonies of chiropterans of other kinds.
But spring heat has woken them, and they have gone to the north in searches
of obda herds. Obda bats arrive to the north later, than obda itself – presence
of enough amount of food is necessary for them. Therefore, while mosquitoes
have not appeared, these chiropterans remain near to wintering places and lead
unremarkable way of life, characteristic for the majority of bats. But in the
beginning of summer they one by one or in small flocks hasten to the north,
overtaking herds of beasts. In flight they feed on insects and can fly all night
without landing. And once in the beginning of summer obdas feel, how in their
wool these small creatures begin moving. At night obda bat flies to hunting,
and the number of the mosquitoes, swarming around obdas, decreases appreciably.
In darkness animals feel, how wings of bats touch their wool, but it does not
frighten, and, on contrary, calms large beasts. Obda bats are not only insect
hunters, but also excellent night sentinels – keen hearing of bats allows them
to find out presence of predators, and obda distinguishes their disturbing voices
very well, and also pricks up its ears.
During the summer obdas carry on their bodies colonies of bats of this species.
These chiropterans even breed on obdas. Soon after flying to the north females
of obda bat give birth. The first days of life cubs are carried on female’s
body – while cubs are small, they do not prevent it to fly and to feed. But
large cubs represent rather serious obstacle for mother, and they leave them
to hang in wool of host beast, and search them for feeding, recognizing their
voices. In absence of mother grown up cubs do not starve. They move actively
in wool of animal and search for various parasites settling in obda’s wool with
the help of mobile nose extended to proboscis. One of such parasites of obda
is a caterpillar of obda wool moth, which gnaws hair of animal. If too many
larvae of this moth parasitize on animal, its wool thins appreciably. Maybe,
in summer it is not so important for survival, but in winter rich dense wool
helps to resist cold, and overcooling can become the reason of illness and death
of animal. Therefore the balance between the number of the parasite and health
of the host animal is vital. And cubs of obda bat help to support it.
Caterpillars of obda wool moth, thin mobile creatures, creep near roots of hair
of obda, forcing huge animal to shudder with their touches. They build small
individual cases of bits of hair fastened by web, and in case of danger are
hidden there, not giving out their presence with movements. Cubs of obda bats,
though are not able to fly, creep actively in wool of animal, clinging by hind
legs and wing thumbs. Due to sharp sense of smell they search quick caterpillars,
and proboscis helps to catch them. For one day cub can eat obda wool moth larvae
and other insects in amount approximately equal to the fifth part of its own
body weight. This way it gradually passes from mother’s milk to rough adult
food. The childhood at young bats is very short – they develop quickly, and
already at monthly age start flying and hunting.
Pursued by birds and bat cubs, larvae of obda wool moth creep away to the bottom
part of body and on legs of obda. They also quickly develop and make cocoons
of obda’s hair. Before the cocoon will be ready, larva bites off hair on which
it is attached, and falls in grass where it will be found hardly by bird. Here
larva finishes making of cocoon, closing it, and then turns to adult moth. Two
generations of obda wool moth have time to develop in summer, but they are much
smaller, that moths developed from larvae wintered on obda. Imago of this species
from one animal to another in the evening, when birds are less active, and bats
have not flied hunting yet. Obda wool moth flies low above grass in order to
hide from any casual predators. Males of this moth are very good fliers. They
search for females with the help of very much advanced bodies of sense of smell
on short antennae. Males of this moth live not for long and do not eat. They
have time to fertilize several females and then perish. Females of obda wool
moth feed on pollen. They live much longer compared to males, because during
their adult life they should find suitable species of host animal and lay eggs
on it. Moths of the second summer generation face the especially hard task –
they should “guess” the proper time of methamorphosis, when obdas migratу to
the south. Some ones succeed to lay eggs on animals spent summer in the district
where moth larvae developed, but it is rather rare luck. The majority of moths
of the second summer generation perishes, having not found obda and having not
laid eggs. But moths of of winter and first summer generation compensate strict
specialization of this generation with their polyphagy.
Ticks represent the true plague of large herbivorous mammals in summertime.
These arthropods are capable to starve for extremely long time, but, having
found out suitable host, they are able to suck the amount of blood surpassing
in tens and even hundreds times their weight. Ticks wait for large animals in
bush or on stalks of high grasses. When obda, shurga or harelope walks past
and touches plant, ticks fall on it literally like a raindrops and creep on
its body. Among numerous species of ticks there are strict specialists parasitizing
exclusively on the only species of animals, and there are extremely omnivorous
kinds sucking blood of various hosts. Development of megafauna promoted active
evolution and prosperity of this group of animals. Ticks stick to the bottom
part of animal’s body more often – on neck and breast, stomach and legs. And,
if ticks of different species parasitize on the same animal, they precisely
share habitats with each other, occupying strictly certain areas of body of
host animal. While tick has not sucked blood, it is very difficult for noticing,
and even keen eyes of woolcreeper are not able to notice it. But ticks full
of blood hang in wool of animals like balls of grey, brownish and even red color.
In summer taiga crails already hatch posterity. Couples of these birds followed
by their brood of fluffy striped chicks wander near herds of herbivorous animals.
Having the certain caution, it is quite safe – birds of prey seldom appear near
to herds, and the food can be found in plenty. When obda or shurga wanders in
grass, from under its legs in all sides grasshoppers and catydids jump, and
crail love them as a food very much. In the beginning of summer in grass there
are lots of nymphs of these insects able to jump, but having soft covers and
consequently representing good food for chicks of these birds. Chicks, even
being only one week old, have good reaction, and are able to catch these insects
quite successfully. But coordination of movements at them is not so good yet,
and they simply miss very frequently, and should obtain food by request at parents,
tapping their beaks with beak. But some days pass, and young crails turn to
successful insect catchers, and they need from parents only heating at night
and protection against small predators if necessary. At same time at crail chicks
first feathers on wings and a back part of neck start growing.
Crails wander near to large herbivores. Tall growth of adult birds helps them
pecking ticks from sides of obdas and shurgas. Large animals at first relate
to such birds mistrustfully because of their large size, but later, having convinced
of their safety and even utility, do not pay attention to them. But crails should
keep an eye on their neighbours to not get under heavy leg of obda or shurga
casually.
Crail female leads its chicks among large mammals. They already have grown up
a little, and dexterously seize grasshoppers and other insects jumping out from
under legs of animals. They are too preoccupied with hunting, and do not notice,
how adult shurga – large three-year old male – comes nearer to them. Despite
of the size, shurga is rather silly animal, and it is possible to frighten it
easily. Crail female is capable only of one kind of menacing display – it runs
directly to the muzzle of animal, stretches wings sharply and utters loud croaking
call. For one second shurga male gauging, and woolcreepers scared by voice of
crail flushed from sides of animal. The next second crail female has simply
pecked the tip of shurga’s proboscis. Not expecting for such attack from much
smaller bird, shurga male has given a grunt discontentedly, and moved aside.
And crail brood has continued feeding.
For some animals it is quite enough to catch insects to keep themselves alive,
but anothers need much more serious prey. King of carnivores of Siberia is Siberian
sabertooth. This predator is strictly specialized large prey hunter, and eats
carrion only in very rare cases. Female of this kind, settled near to “obda
road”, is not the olny representative of this kind in this area. She managed
to couple with large male, which has left her territory soon. But cubs, which
father he became, will be born only the next year. While female brings up two
cubs, the embryos growing in her body, will terminate in development until the
next year.
Female of Siberian sabertooth arranged the hunt directly on “obda road” foe
some times, but every time huntings were broken because of alarm risen by woolcreepers
perching on backs of large animals. But hunting in forest appeared more successful
– the saber-toothed cat managed to kill snow harelopes some times, and once
with exact impact of canines in neck she has brought down large male, which
meat had been enough for her for two days. One more time extraction the prey
of hunter became two-year-old shurga female escaped from heat in forest. Sabertooth
female has noticed that in forest birds, breaking up her hunting many times,
do not perch on backs of animals. In addition in forest it is much easier to
arrange an ambush, and the huge cat killed animals some times, rushing on them
from tree. Thus impact of her body brought down an animal on the ground, and
enabled to put a bite in neck or stomach. Bewaring of breaking canines, female
of Siberian sabertooth did not bite prey’s rib cage or sacrum, and chose soft
tissies for drawing a wound. Positive experience was outlined by sabertooth
female, and due to her luck in hunting her posterity developed very successfully.
At her cubs eyes and ears have already opened, and they began to creep much
more actively in den, reeling on weak paws. It is possible to hope, that they
will develop to an autumn well enough to endure to the south and to learn the
basic hunting skills. But first of all their mother should be the good hunter
for this purpose.
Herbivores use the certain tracks in forest, and the best ambush is just near
tracks. Female has chosen for an ambush thickets on border of forest and “obda
road”. Here bushes are replaced by deciduous trees, and herbivores frequently
walk on the track to escape from heat in forest. The shadow of foliage, falling
on grass, is perfectly combined with spotty pattern on skin of predator, and
sabertooth female can wait for appearing of suitable prey quietly.
In bushes rustle of branches and tramping of large feet are heard. Obda herd
numbering about twenty animals moves here to have a rest in shadow. The herd
is led by large male with large narrow horn on muzzle and high corneous eyeshades
above eyes. When it walks in bush, these eyeshades protect eyes from twigs.
It is followed by some females, near which cubs already frolick, born during
last two weeks. Obda cub is attractive prey, but hunting for it is very difficult
– female constantly keeps near to the offspring, and is ready to rush on any
predator, risking its own life for the sake of its protection. After them one
more male passes, obviously having the subordinated position in herd, and with
it only one female with cub follows. But the most desire prey is young obda
male, the two-year-old animal which is not requiring for parent trusteeship
any more, but is still weak enough alone to repulse an attack of predator. And
it behaves least circumspectly, staying near bushes for feeding. Female of Siberian
sabertooth watches for it, and her short tail shivers, giving out a strong exertion.
In wool of male some bats creep – these are permanent companions of this species.
They break night hunting of predators very frequently, warning obdas about danger
with disturbing voices. But it seems that predator has chosen a good place for
an ambush: nobody of them had noticed danger, and bats live the usual life.
Females still feed already grown up cubs with milk, or lick their wool. Some
of young chiropters try to fly – clinging for obda’s wool, they flap frequently.
They succeed to fly up for some seconds, but they do not dare to come off a
body of the host animal yet, and strongly grip locks of its wool by paws.
Obda male has gone to bushes far and had separated from the main herd, which
moved forward. It does not worry yet – it hears voices of adult animals and
sees among trees their sides and backs. And female of Siberian sabertooth started
hunting. She began creeping to huge animal, almost quietly stepping on wood
litter. When the wind has noised tree crones, predator has made the long jump
to tree trunk, and has stood motionlessly. It seems all is quiet in forest.
She has cautiously looked out from behind the bush, and has looked on obda again.
Maybe, male does not know that it is observed by predator, and continues browsing
leaflets. Having swallowed some torn off leaves, it lowers head in bushes again.
Sabertooth female had made one rush only. By strong impact of left paw she has
inclined obda’s head aside, has seized shoulder of animal by right paw, has
deeply stuck dagger-like canines into its throat and the next second has pulled
them out, having pushed the beast away from her. From impact of heavy body of
predator obda has swayed, and has tumbled down in bushes, breaking its branches.
Somewhere among trees disturbing trumpet voices of adult animals sound – the
herd has heard noise of the combat. But animals will not come back to drive
the predator away – they are too frightened, and there are cubs in herd, which
can fall prey.
After attack female of Siberian sabertooth watches to fallen obda. Now she should
be patient, and prey will get to her without superfluous efforts. Obda hardly
rises on legs – it is fatally wounded. From wounds on animal’s neck blood pours
in wide streams, impregnating its wool – canines of sabertooth hit jugular vein.
Above obda scared bats hover. At falling the beast has crushed several young
animals, and it’s another side has spots of their blood. Obda tries to overtake
the herd, hoping for safety, promising by presence of relatives, but it will
hardly manage to make it. Voices of obda herd are heared somewhere in the distance
– the herd hurries up to leave dangerous place. Animals feel terrible smell
of blood, it frightens them, and they step faster. Wounded obda male can not
move so quickly. Siberian sabertooth female does not hide itself and walks almost
near to its prey. She knows, that after successful attack prey lives not for
long, and does not try to catch it up or to render one more wound. Fatally wounded
obda weakens soon, but sabertooth female drives it further. Blood pours on wool
of an animal as wide stream, and on forest track red pools remain – obda male
lives its last minutes of life. At last, obda stumbles against root of tree,
and falls. It moves legs and tries to rise for some minutes, but then dies from
loss of blood. Bats have hovered above killed obda for some minutes, and then
have directed after herd. But all the same on obda’s body some young bats stay,
which are not able to fly yet. When sabertooth female has come nearer to prey,
they have tried to creep away from predator. Sabertooth female has noticed their
movement and has struck paw some times, killing one tiny beast with each impact.
Hunting is finished.
Siberian sabertooth female started eating its prey. Sharp claws have ripped
up skin and muscles of obda on one side and naked the interiors. Saber-like
canines limit an opportunity of sabertooth to eat firmer parts of carcass and
to gnaw meat from bones, therefore this animal eats mainly edible parts of interiors
and soft parts of rear legs and waists of carcass. Sometimes animal can chew
meat from front legs of prey, but actually never tries to gnaw ribs. Canines
of animal can stuck into bones and break simply. And the hunter without its
main weapon lives not for long – it is compelled to eat carrion, and in this
case is compelled to maintain competition to set of other animals.
The smell of blood of prey involves predators and scavengers. Eating meat of
obda, sabertooth female notices among trees silhouettes of predators with bluish-gray
fur and dark strip stretched from a nape up to the tail. These are waheelas
changed magnificent winter fur to summer wool, which is not so noticeable against
the background of forest. They were involved for a long time with sounds of
struggle and smell of blood, but care has got the best, and they do not venture
to challenge sabertooth female. She can kill any of them with one impact of
heavy clawed paw, and attempt to take off its prey may cost lifes to several
members of pack. Spongers and stealers of another’s prey are always numerous
among predators. It is favourable enough strategy of survival, especially if
animals live here, able to kill very big prey and not able to eat it entirely
for once. Additionally, hunting for large game takes away many forces, and such
prey is harder for protecting. Berl, the second in ferocity and the first in
weight the predator of forests of Siberia, frequently receives the part of its
prey, using only rough physical strength. Having good sense of smell, it easily
defines, where the prey is, and never misses an opportunity to take it away.
Each individual of large species of predators should control vast territory,
and their populations are very rarefied. Therefore a meeting of two mega-predators
near the same prey is the phenomenon rare enough. Nevertheless, it happens at
least because one of predators can purposefully search for this meeting. When
sabertooth female tore meat, in the distance deep growl was heard, and waheelas,
prowled in bushes nearby, have gathered and began to behave appreciably more
silently. Rustle of foliage and crunch of branches has notified wood inhabitants
on approach of large animal which is not afraid anybody to notice it. Large
berl male in light brown summer wool comes closer and closer to obda carcass.
It weighs approximately one and a half times more than female of Siberian sabertooth,
and is obviously not going to recede if there will be a fight. In nature it
frequently happens, that the strongest one eats first, without dependence from
the one who has killed the prey.
Berl and sabertooth are two perfectly armed hunters. Berl is much heavier and
has huge force. But sabertooth female is equipped with pointed retractable claws
and huge canines. She is more mobile compared to berl, and is quite able to
win in fight with the help of the dexterity. Berl prefers to operate directly.
It approaches to carcass of killed obda, sniffing to to the smell of blood.
It is an obvious challenge, and replying to it sabertooth female grins canines
threateningly and utters deep grumble. Berl recedes, but only to half of step.
The warning has not worked, and sabertooth female has begun to roar loudly,
having grinned. Berl made some steps back and started walking around the carcass,
trying to go from behind. Keeping eyes on it, sabertooth female has yawned.
But it not a sign of her sleepy mood, and obvious demonstration of canines,
intended to force a stranger to recede. Such signs of force display work well
during intraspecific conflicts: it helps to avoid serious fights which can have
heavy consequences for well armed predators. But berl is not impressed with
threats of the representative of absolutely different family of predators. While
it walks around obda carcass, female of Siberian sabertooth watches its movements
attentively, keeping head to its side. Her ears are pressed against head – it
indicates the internal tension of animal, and her readiness to act. Tip of tail
of sabertooth female pulls from side to side – she hardly keeps herself from
an attack. As against cats, berls prefer to settle the questions of superiority
by force. Huge animal has sharply risen on hind legs, displaying its size, and
lowered hard back on all four. Dull impact is header, and under its paws dry
branch has crackled. But display of berl has not conceived action – sabertooth
female has grinned stronger only, and has bellowed deep. And then predator has
decided to operate regardless of obstacles. Having lifted its tail up, berl
splashed smelly liquid on the ground, designating its claims for prey, and climbed
on carcass, growling and grinning. Now it is no chance to avoid the conflict,
and sabertooth female is compelled to resist to it, using all her best qualities.
With one jump she appeared right in front of muzzle of berl, and has put to
it sharp impact by clawed paw on its nose. Berl has begun roaring, and on its
wool some deep painful scratches have appeared, from which blood leaked. The
next moment the second impact of paw made deep stripes on skin at the opposite
side of its head, and huge cat has not pulled out eye of this predator only
by great chance. Acute pain and smell of its own blood as if have made berl
sober, and it started to recede to avoid any much more serious wound. Berl has
literally slid from the carcass, and has run off aside, and the roar of giant
cat followed it. In spite of the fact that it surpasses sabertooth female in
weight, now it is not the strongest one. When the cat goes down from the side
of killed obda, berl recedes even farther. Sabertooth female sniffs at the mark
left by it, digs some dround over it, and then continues to tear obda carcass,
choosing the softest parts of it.
While successful hunter eats, berl wanders beside, waiting for its share. When
it approaches too close, giant cat interrupts its meal, and yawns in a pointed
manner, displaying long canines. Now berl understands, that threat of this animal
is supported with force, and will be afraid henceforth of close meetings with
such predators. And deep scars on muzzle will ache for many days and will keep
to all further life; it will remind to it constantly of care at the meeting
with other kinds of predators.
Sabertooth female tries to eat as much as possible – it is quite obviously,
that all rests will get to other predators immediately after she will leave.
But she should eat to have enough milk and to bring up her cubs. To the beginning
of an autumn her posterity should become large enough to sustain long travel
to the south, following obda herds. About thirty kilograms of meat has disappeared
in sabertooth female’s stomach. Having felt herself full, female jumped off
from obda carcass and directed by roundabout tracks to her den. For the sake
of safety of the posterity she should to confuse traces and to induce a double
trace as good, as hare, to mask the way to den.
When the terrible spotty-skinned predator has left, berl wandering around of
the carcass has felt itself a master of the situation again. Having convinced
that near to the carcass there are waheelas only, which are obviously weaker
than it is, berl made some odorous marks on the ground near to obda carcass
and got its teeth sink greedy in even warm meat. It has noticed that waheelas
do not go out, and has loudly bellowed some times, striking by paw on the obda
carcass. Its force is so great, that obda carcass shudders with its impacts.
Waheelas, waiting for the rests of meat, have receded, and soon have left away
at all. But berl can remain near the carcass for some days – while meat stays
edible.
Each predator has its own strategy of survival, which has the advantages and
lacks. Berl and sabertooth are solitary hunters relying only to themselves.
Natural selection is severe to them, but its result is the specialized predator
being out of competition. Each animal of such kind accumulates the certain individual
experience during life, but transfers only small part of it to new generation.
This is rather nonflexible behavior, which has been held down with set of instincts
besides. Such predators survive successfully only in rather stable conditions.
Waheelas represent the different type of a predator of Siberian forests. These
ones are medium-sized, but numerous predators. Their behaviour is more flexible,
that gives them more prospects for a survival. Pack of these predators is a
true warehouse of collective experience, and young animals can learn much at
grown-ups during the collective hunting. Furthermore waheelas are curious, and
besides very courageous, when being in pack. And sometimes it makes them dangerous.
At the territory inhabited by the female of Siberian sabertooth some waheela
packs live. Animals of one of these packs waited the large cat to sort out the
relationships with massive berl, hoping to profit with the rests of prey of
this predator. But representatives of one more pack have completely casually
found out the thing, for which the giant cat can fight even more furiously,
than for carcass of just killed obda – carefully disguised den of Siberian sabertooth.
Some animals of the pack have heard squeak of cubs, and have decided to locate
the place, from which it proceeds. They have dispersed in forest, listening
to surrounding sounds, and soon one animal has found out under roots of pine
fallen by wind a wide hole, in which two pairs of small green eyes looked at
predators from darkness. Waheelas behave very cautiously. They feel smell the
terrible predator, emitting from den, and only look in den, sniffing, for the
first some minutes. Having convinced, that there is no adult animal nearby,
they decide to act, and one animal got into hole almost entirely. In one second
from hole plaintive squeak listened, which has sharply broken, and the predator
crept back, having pulled out tiny lifeless body of Siberian sabertooth cub.
Another animal has tried to snatch out its prey, and has pulled dead body to
itself. Between animals fight was fastened, and at this time their prey was
stolen by one more animal, and both fighting predators have rushed to chase
it. And one more predator crept to the den, where one more cub was hidden, waiting
for its fate.
Having seen how instead of mother a different animal creeps to the den, from
which unfamiliar and consequently terrible smell emits, little beast hided in
the most distant corner of den, between roots of pine. And the unfamiliar terrible
animal continued to climb all farther, and in some seconds jaws of predator
could touch the cub. But at this time loud sounds were heared from outside –
sharp abrupt yelping, which made the situation even more terrible, and after
that a familiar sound – voice of mother, loud angry growl. The predator managed
to get into the den almost entirely, twitched in narrowness, frightened a lot,
and has tried to turn around, having heard yelping. It was an alarm signal of
waheela, which meant only one thing: sabertooth female is back. The next second
predator has been taken off from the den jerky, and then cub has heard its squeal
replaced with whimper, which stopped soon. And after several seconds of even
more terrible silence it has heard the sounds dearest for itself – abrupt throat
rumbling meaning for it calmness and safety. Sabertooth cub has got out of a
den, and has crept on unruly paws to mother, which bent to it and has carefully
sniffed. Somewhere aside sabertooth cub noticed the crushed by impact of paw
corpse of waheela stained with blood – that animal which has almost seized it.
And then all its attention has concentrated only at mother. It has buried in
her soft stomach in searches of milk, and has felt, as her wet rough tongue
licks its wool.
Escaped cub is not wounded, but is only scared – undesirable newcomers had no
time to put serious harm to it. But if the female licks it – it is a good sign.
It means, that connection between female and her posterity is still strong,
and now escaped cub has even more chances to survive. All food, care and protection
will get only to it now.
Having fed her cub, female seizes its skin on neck, and abandons the ravaged
den for ever. At the extensive territory, where she lives, there are some secluded
places, and she will arrange a new den in one of them. The cub saved by her
will survive, and many years later it will becomes one of the largest representatives
of this kind. But now it should eat well and grow to survive in the first winter
of its life. The Siberian summer lasts not for long.
Bestiary |
Siberian
shurga (Niveaper sibiricus)
Order: Artiodactyls (Artiodactyla)
Family: Trunk boars (Proboscichoeridae)
Habitat: mountains of Eastern Siberia, cold areas of Northeast Asia.
Picture by Timothy Donald Morris
Pigs are among the most successful animals of Neocene epoch.
Due to high ecological plasticity and using human assistance pigs had considerably
expanded an area, and after human disappearance began to evolve freely, adapting
to changing world and surviving in conditions their ancestors never lived. Some
species had developed woods, others
began to live in bush, third ones became dwarf
inhabitants of ocean islands. Open districts of Eurasia enabled pigs to evolve
to huge species.
In mountains of Eastern Siberia one of such huge descendants of boar (Sus scrofa)
wanders in herds. It is the animal covered with rich wool and named Siberian
shurga (“shurga” is the name of boar at Manchurians). This animal is bigger
than bull – weight of adult males reaches two tons, and females weight up to
1600 kg. Siberian shurga is a relict of congelation epoch kept in conditions
of continental climate of Eurasia. Its ancestors were huge woolly wild boars
(rhinoceros-sized animals lived during the congelation at the border of Holocene
and Neocene). This branch of pigs had early separated from the common branch
of trunk boars family, but Siberian shurga, nevertheless, has well advanced
proboscis.
Shurga is perfectly adapted to conditions of rigorous continental climate. Winter
wool of animal is rich, long and colored gray-brown. It forms something like
the “skirt” protecting stomach of animal from cold wind. Summer wool is short
and dark-brown. On tail of animal long wool grows; that’s why it looks like
horse’s one. Such tail is convenient to drive away blood-sucking insects breeding
plentifully till the Siberian summer. Skin of shurga is thick, especially on
nape and shoulders: it serves for protection against large predators, forming
original “armour”. On back right from nape the big fatty hump stretches up to
waist: it is the stock of nutrients for winter. At males the hump forms thick
fat pillow on head, which is used in courtship demonstrations.
Head of shurga is rather large and massive. Muzzle of animal is flattened from
above; canines stick up forward and are bent upwards. It is an adaptation for
digging of forage from under snow: shurga rakes snow by lateral movements of
head. The snout is extended to mobile proboscis, assisting to gather food from
the ground. The proboscis at shurga was developed independently from representatives
of the basic branch of trunk boars. The proboscis of Siberian shurga is wide
and flat, and its free mobile tip surpasses the length of the top jaw only a
little. It permits to warm inhaled air, and it is very important in habitats
of Siberian shurga for which rigorous winter frosts are characteristic. This
animal tears off leaves of bushes and grass by mobile tip of proboscis.
On cheeks of males thick corneous outgrowths covered with thin wool develop:
they are the attribute of sexual dimorphism and means of protection of males
in courtship tournaments. Eyes of Siberian shurga are small: animal has bad
sight. This animal is near-sighted, but has sharp sense of smell. At Siberian
shurga there are big olfactory chambers inside the trunk, formed by advanced
folded epithelium. Ears are short, covered with rich fur on edges and external
side. Despite of these features, at shurga there is very good hearing.
Hoofs of shurga are wide, under heels of animal fat pillows develop; because
of it the foot of this animal is similar to foot of the elephant. Feet at Siberian
shurga are rather wide; it permits this massive animal to walk on snow and to
not fail. They are covered with thick cornificate skin, therefore this animal
can freely walk on firm stones. Hoofs of III and IV toes are strong. With their
help animal breaks ice crust, wandering on mountains and woods of Siberia. In
winter on feet of animal thick corneous layer accrues, due to which shurga can
walk in snow, not falling.
In summer this animal eats bush branches and high grass. Oftently shurga feeds
on rivers with grass and marsh plants, digging the forage out with the help
of tusks. Shurga has kept habits of omnivorous animal: whenever possible this
animal eats carrion, seaweed and sea animals cast ashore. In winter Siberian
shurga digs snow by tusks, throwing it by lateral movements of head. Animal
can dig out snow up to depth one and half meters. On dugs shurga eats evergreen
vegetation, rests of last year's grass. When thickness of snow reaches several
meters, Siberian shurga migrates to woods. There it is fed on branches – when
snow will wear trees out, their trunks disappear under snow cover and crones
become more accessible. Signs of winter feeding of Siberian shurga are well
appreciable in summer wood: it is characteristically “cut” crones of low trees
bitten in winter up to snow level and lower. They branch plentifully, forming
the umbrella-like crone on low thick trunk.
Siberian shurga lives in forest-tundra and mountains, avoiding extensive marshy
places. In summer this animal frequently visits ponds and rivers, but in the
autumn when the long winter wool starts to grow, shurga moves to dry places.
This animal keeps in herds of 8 – 12 animals which most part females and their
cubs of the first years of life account under the leading of the large male.
Joint search of forage and group protection against predators are an effective
way of survival in rigorous conditions of Siberia. The main enemy of Siberian
shurga is Siberian sabertooth, the large
representative of felines, specialized for large prey hunting. Usually it attacks
these animals in summer when it comes from the south with herds of obda.
In winter a lot of animals perishes from fodder shortage and cold. The young
growth suffers especially strongly – in first winter of life about half of the
animals, born the previous spring, perishes.
The rut at Siberian shurga begins with the first frosts in the beginning of
winter. During the rut males are aggressive. They determine the hierarchy with
the help of tournaments during which they beat each other by tusks to tusks,
having lifted heads. Corneous outgrowths on cheeks protect head from casual
impacts. At this time they strongly puff trunks and roar.
Usually male gahthers a harem of several females, and preserves it against contenders
while females are ready to accept its courtship. Male shows fat stocks to the
female, turning sideways to her and shaking head. Simultaneously turn by side
is an action which extinguishes aggression of the female: the male demonstrates
to her the spot vulnerable for tusk impact.
After the rut males and females unite in herds – it is easier to survive in
winter this way. Pregnancy lasts about seven months (it is rather short term
for so large animals). The female gives rise to two – three cubs weighting about
80 kg. At once at birth they are covered with wool, active, are able to run
at once (piglets spend first days of life in shelter). In two days cubs of shurga
do not remain behind herd. They grow quickly, being fed with fat milk. At bi-monthly
age cubs start to try vegetative food, and to the end of summer completely pass
to diet of adult animals. To the autumn young animals grow weight about 400
kg. Due to coordinated group defense against predator their survival rate is
good, but in winter a plenty of young growth perishes from frost and famine
– adult animals are not able to protect them from it. Usually young animals
had reached two-year-old age, have good chances to reach sexual maturity and
to breed. Maturity comes at six years age at males, and in seven – eight years
at females. Life expectancy reaches 50 years.
The idea about existence of this animal was stated by Momus, the forum member.
Thick-foreheaded
obda (Obda pachyfrons)
Order: Hoofed lagomorphs (Ungulagomorpha)
Family Huge lagoids (Titanolagidae)
Habitat: woods and plains of Northern Asia and Beringian mountains.
Picture by Tim Morris
“Obda”
is the name of mammoth at Maris, one of Northern Eurasian folks. This name is
quite warrantly given to the enormous herbivorous animal for features of external
similarity to prehistoric giant. Obda is one of largest ground animals at the
Neocenic Earth: withers height of the adult male reaches 2.5 meters, body length
is up to 5 meters, head length is over 70 cm; animal weights more than 3 tons
(female is a little bit lighter). The gigantic size of animal is the adaptation
for inhabiting in climate of Siberia and Beringia characteristic in cold snowy
winters. Constitution of animal is clumsy: massive body, very thick legs, every
leg with three hoof-like claws. Under fingers (and toes) there is thick elastic
fatty pat (as at elephant’s leg) which softens steps and expands the support
area of legs. Body is covered with wool – in summer rather short brown with
yellowish sites on cheeks and chest, in winter – dense white one. Wool is especially
advanced on sides; up to winter on back the big fat hump grows lasting up to
waist. In winter “fur coat” on throat and chest rich long “beard” grows, and
on bottom part of sides “skirt” of long wool appears warming stomach. In winter
young animals can hide under this “skirt” with wind as in tent.
On head of animals of both sexes there is massive horn outgrowth spreading along
nose bridge from eyes level (where it is expanded and is partially doubled covering
eyes as if cap peak) to the end of muzzle (where it is narrower and higher).
The outgrowth is used for fights at the relations of hierarchy establishment
and also for snow digging in winter - animal digs out snow by lateral movements
of head, thus the outgrowth works as a shovel. By constitution and presence
of horn this animal is more similar to the extinct hairy rhinoceros (Coelodonta).
Lips of the obda are arranged originally: the upper lip is doubled, and its
halves due to numerous muscles are able to move as if mitten fingers independently
from each other. Such device of lips permits this animal to gather even thin
blades of grass and sticks from the ground. In summer obda eats grass, leaves,
young branches of trees and bushes, in winter it feeds by needles and leaves
of evergreen bushes, digging them out from snow. For digestion of forage rich
in cellulose at animal complex multichamber stomach had developed. Unicellular
organisms inhabiting it help huge animal to digest even young bark of coniferous
trees.
In each jaw of animal there are four incisors and three pairs of wide folded
molars.
Obda lives in herds numbering 20 - 30 animals from which not sexual matured
young growth of different years are about half of number. Herd is under authority
of large male having constant “harem” of 5 – 6 females. Other males in herd
stay at the subordinated position and form constant pairs with mature females.
Females from “harem” of the leading male usually dominate over other females.
Pairing occurs in middle of summer, pregnancy lasts about 10 months. During
rut skirmishes between males usually do not occur as there is a hierarchy in
herd. Adult animals only confirm usual relations of domination with the help
of ritualized movements. Only when young single male tries to challenge superiority
of the lawful leader, rather serious fights can take place though they basically
happen without fatal cases being limited only by might demonstration and short
skirmishes.
Female gives rise to one cub once a year. Cub rising occurs at the end of spring
when herds already are on summer pastures. The newborn cub at once tries to
rise, and after some hours it can freely go after herd. It is fed with very
fat milk and grows quickly: at one-year-old age it weighs about 800 kgs. Usually
shortly before the following delivery at the female milk secretion stops and
the grown up cub completely passes to “adult” food. At this time (usually it
occurs in early spring) the part of cubs perishes if winter appears too long.
Cubs become independent late: the previous cub stays with mother till 2 years,
feeding together with it especially in winter. It becomes completely adult at
the age of 5 years.
Obda makes long annual migrations: in spring herds of these animals move to
the north, and in autumn come back in woods where they spend winter. Migration
usually passes lengthways large rivers walleys where “obda roads” having destroyed
forest vegetation are formed in due course. When old “road” becomes inconvenient
or the herd used it disappears, this place quickly grows with birch or aspen
forest which is later replaced by coniferous trees. Sometimes during migration
separate small herds or family groups unite that interferes with inbreeding.
In spring herds move to estuaries of northern rivers. Tundra during Neocene
has remained as relict zone of separate marshlands covered with low bushes and
in many places taiga approaches almost to Polar Ocean coast. Here obdas find
plentiful forage. In coastal woods obdas eat grass and bushes. Sometimes they
come to sea shallow waters to have a drink salt water (salt is vital to these
animals) or to food with seaweed. At grass feeding obda sometimes kneels forward
legs – at this animal neck is rather short and it is more convenient to take
forage from the ground this way. Sometimes obda foods with river vegetation:
having pulled out from ground tuft of cane or reed, animal “rinses” it in water,
holding in mouth before to to have eaten. In water obdas escape from heat and
blood-sucking insects. Animals swim well and frequently search for forage at
the river bottom digging out by horn tubers and rhizomes of water lilies. Animal
eats plants emerged on water surface.
In autumn obdas migrate to the south, to forests. In conditions of sharply continental
climate when winter frosts fall up to -30°C and northern plains become covered
by one and half meter thick snow layer life in woods looks much easily. Here
they are protected from chill wind and find a lot of forage – branches of trees
and bushes. And at wood edges in silent frosty days obdas dig out last year's
grass and eat the rests of cane sticking up from ice at the river.
In wool of obda many parasites settle, therefore birds and even bats
fed by them are often and welcome guests in herds of these animals. And in winter
at digged out ground made by obda numerous herbivores – harelopes and rodents
– are feeding.
Life expectancy of obda is great: large males live till 50 years, and the female
- up to 40 – 45 years.
Snow
harelope (Heterolopa niveophila)
Order: Hoofed lagomorphs (Ungulagomorpha)
Family: Harelopes (Lagolopidae)
Habitat: Siberia, woods and foothills.
Picture by Sauron from FurNation
Picture by Cossus
The vigorous activity of the person and ice age – these factors
both had resulted to sharp decreasing of the number of hoofed mammals at the
territory of Northern Hemisphere; and they had vanished absolutely at the most
part of Eurasia. But this event had been a stimulus for the further evolution
of other groups of herbivores had been earlier only insignificant addition on
the background of variety of hoofed mammals. Eurasia had became a place of formation
of new group of mammals – hoofed lagomorphs, descendants of ancient and conservative
order including true hares, rabbits and their relatives. At absence of competition
these animals had started to evolve actively, and in Neocene in Eurasia and
North Africa their representatives are very characteristic for fauna of woods
and plains.
Despite of general warming, for Eurasia the severe continental climate with
sharp annual temperature drop is still characteristic. It occurs because of
remoteness of the most part of Siberia from influence of oceans. In summer in
Siberia heat dominates – the temperature rises up to +35°С. But in winter
frosts reach -40°С. Increase of ocean level has resulted in general increase
of amount of deposits. Therefore winters in Siberia became very snow, and in
spring the high water turns to act of nature for local animals. In such conditions
only the animal well adapted to extreme conditions of existence can survive.
One of such inhabitants of Siberia is snow harelope. It is the close relative
of forest harelope, but this
species differs from it in larger sizes and heavy-build constitution. The withers
height of this animal reaches 1.7 meters, and weight is about 300 kgs. Also
at the snow harelope there are shorter and rounded ears covered with fur from
outside.
Ancestors of all species of harelopes, hares from Eurasia, differed in ability
to change colouring of fur to winter. Species of harelopes from Europe and Northern
Africa had lost this ability, but snow harelope had kept it. Winter fur of this
animal is rich and snow-white with plentiful thin underfur. Summer colouring
of this animal is brown with light vertical strips on groats and hips. In summer
wool on the head of animal there are white marks on cheeks. Ears have black
tips; in winter fur tips of ears become grey.
On legs of this harelope there are thin fingers covered with the common skin
cover which ends by the common cornificate sole. To winter on legs of animal
“ski” of wool develop, allowing loping on snow. Due to them snow harelope can
move down on slopes of mountains on rear legs bent under.
Snow harelopes escape from predators in flight – they can accelerate momentum
up to 60 kms per hour on firm ground and up to 40 kms per hoour on snow. If
necessary they can defence against predator by impacts of forward legs and bites.
An alarm signal at this species is long shrill whistle.
At snow harelope the precise sexual dimorphism is expressed – male weighs twice
more than female (hence the name including concept “hetero-”- “different”).
At it the “beard” of wool develops: it is an attribute of its good physical
form, and females more willingly pair with the most “bearded” male. This species
keeps in harems numbering one male and some females (usually from three up to
five animals). It is vital necessity – the male is stronger, rather than females,
and in winter it digs out snow to reach last year's grass and evergreen bushes.
Females feed on plants dug out by male. If it perishes from predators, females
are doomed for starvation, but they can join other harems.
In the beginning of winter male pairs with females of its harem. At this time
he is compelled to protect the females from single males challenging to him.
At this time males of snow harelope utter cry similar to low, showing the claim
on females. They fight with each other, kicking and striking impacts by forward
legs. Usually females do not interfere with a course of fight, but occasionally
the strongest female can unite the male, and they drive off the applicant for
a harem together.
At the end of spring at the female two well advanced fawns are born. They rise
on legs in half an hour after birth and at the end of the first day of life
already can run quickly. Fawns differ from adult animals in more contrast striped
colouring and absence of spots on cheeks. They reach the size of adult animals
at the third year of life.
Obda
bat (Synobda medica)
Order: Chiropters (Chiroptera)
Family Common bats (Vespertilionidae)
Habitat: Northern Asia, Beringia. In summer this mammal keeps near to herds
of obda migrating in winter to southern areas
and falling into hibernation.
Picture by Alexander Smyslov
Large species of animals is the remarkable phenomenon in life
of natural community. Any species of live creatures are an inhabitancy for numerous
species of invertebrates - parasites (their set is named parasitocenosis), but
large animal species become also an original component of inhabitancy even for
small (and sometimes not only to small) vertebrate animals. Among vertebrates
of the Neocenic Earth the species completely dependent on other vertebrate has
not appeared yet but some species have entered close symbiotic relations with
each other. Herds of large animal obda migrating at spaces of Western Siberia
and Beringian mountains had become mobile dining room for numerous small vertebrates.
Large animals involve clouds of tiny blood-sucking insects eating by various
small birds and also by bats. And one species of bats became practically constant
summer satellite of huge animals.
The obda bat spends the most part of time near herds of obda eating numerous
blood-sucking flies and midges. Activity in extripation of obda parasites of
this species of chiropters is especially important: obda bat flies to hunting
in the evening and hunts bloodsuckers during all night when these tiresome insects
are especially active. But herds of obda constantly move and to not lose so
attractive source of livelihood obda bat has partly torn with ancestral habit
of life and had exchanged homebody life for the nomadic life: these small mammals
spend day in wool of obda; at the same place they leave grown up cubs for the
period of hunting.
Obda bat is small creature: body length of adult mammal is only 7 – 8 cm; wingspan
is up to 25 cm. The body of this chiroptere is covered with short wool of brownish-red
color; on belly wool is grayish-white. Wing membranes and ears are dark and
not covered with wool. Tail is very short and does not exceed hinder legs in
length.
At obda bat there are few outgrowths on muzzle characteristic for many chiroptere
species which at times give to its relatives grotesque and fantastical appearance.
Unique original feature of this species is nose extended to rather long and
mobile proboscis covered with naked folded skin. With the help of this proboscis
obda bat diversifies the diet, finding among wool of obda ticks and other parasites.
Ears of obda bat are large, rounded and almost equal to length of head including
proboscis by size. The special cross groove and two thin muscles on the external
and internal sides of ear permit this mammal to fold and to open ears.
Obda bat spends all day on the body of huge host animal. Usually these mammals
keep on neck, sides and stomach of obda. When animals gather for evening rest,
bats fly to hunt. Flapping by narrow wings they promptly rush between gigantic
obdas, uttering series of thin echolocating clicks and picking up mosquitoes
and midges gathering to herd from nearest swamps. Shouts of bats are perfectly
audible to obdas, and huge animals presume to themselves to relax – there is
reliable guard at them. The keen hearing of bats allows them to hear the slightest
rustle of steps of predators cautiously creeping to herd. Hearing extraneous
sounds bats are nervous and their anxiety forces huge herbivores to be more
sensitive and cautious. Bats benefit by so original neighbourhood too: they
are almost not attacked by predatory birds and animals.
The obda bat is so adhered to mighty host that even breeds in wool of obda.
In the beginning of summer at the female cubs and less often twins are born.
First days female carries naked and blind cub on itself, leaving it in wool
of the obda later. The young growth keeps basically on sides and back of animal
– there it is little bit more safe place: when animal passes wade the shallow
river or grovels obscenely through bushes bat cubs will not fall down from body
of giant. It is not known, whether the huge obda realizes gratitude in relation
to bats settling in its wool. Despite of the “menagerie” lodged in wool obda
continues to live habitual life. Sometimes animals exhausted by stings of mosquitoes
and midges search for rescue from them in rivers. At this time young obda bats
yet not able to fly can simply sink. Partly small size of obda bat can be explaned
by one feature of behaviour which was generated at this species for protection
against similar accidents. If the cub not able to fly is in danger (for example,
the obda on which it is sitting decides to take a bath or to wallow in sand),
female can seize it by claws of hinder legs and to fly any time taking it, though
the “overage” cub is practically equal to mother by size. In case of need the
cub utters the special sound signal, calling mother; she seizes it by paws and
lifts up in air. But it proceeds not for long time: cubs quickly grow and study
to fly. At monthly age young obda bat can freely fly and hunts insects equally
with parents. The next year young females give rise to their own cubs.
In autumn when obdas migrate to the southern forests bats can abandon them.
Obda bat spends winter farther at the south, gathering for hibernation in caves
and hollows of large trees. Hibernation at them is very deep; thus body temperature
is strongly reduced. After hibernation pairing in early spring takes place,
and bats migrate to the north finding herds of obda and settling on animals
after approach of steady warm weather. They do not have attachment to any certain
herd, and hardly probable obda bat will spend more than one season with the
same herd of host animals.
Waheela
(Waheela borealis)
Order: Carnivores (Carnivora)
Family: Canids (Canidae)
Habitat: Holarctic – Eastern Siberia, Beringia, Alaska, the north of North America.
Picture by Sauron from FurNation
In Late Pleistocene and Holocene at the territory of Eurasia
and North America wolf (Canis lupus) had been a dominant predator. It was a
type of universal predator, able to hunt the most diverse kinds of animals –
from fish and mice up to large ungulates. But in historical time people became
its main competitors, and between these two species irreconcilable war began.
People had superseded wolves from the majority of habitats, and had undermined
its forage reserve, having destroyed populations of large ungulates. In success
of hunting for small prey wolf lost to smaller species of animals – to representatives
of mustelids and to foxes. As a result the population of wolf had been reduced
up to critical level, and it had died out soon.
In Neocene number of large animals began to grow gradually, and at the area
of Holarctic new wolf-like predator appeared. It was the descendant of Arctic
fox (Alopex lagopus), the animal successfully survived an ice age and epoch
of biological crisis. It has appreciably increased in size and has turned to
pack predator. So the new kind of canids – waheela – had evolved. This animal
is named after mythical predator from Inuit folklore.
Waheela is a predator perfectly adapted to conditions of continental climate
with very rigorous winter. It inhabits vast territory, including spots of tundra
along the coast of Arctic Ocean, in northern elfin forests and in taiga. In
the west its area is bordered with wetlands of Western Siberia.
It is the large predator, similar in constitution to wolf, but more robust,
with larger head, short jaws and high forehead. The shoulder height of adult
animal is about 70 centimeters, and its weight can reach 60 kgs. Thus, waheela
is comparable in size with Pleistocene dire wolf (Canis dirus) from North America,
and surpasses large subspecies of common wolf. Winter fur of waheela is white,
rich and long; summer wool is very short, grey with bluish shade and black strip
stretching from nape up to root of tail.
Waheela lives and hunts in packs of 6-10 individuals. The pack of these animals
represents a clan of father’s kins. Young females and the significant number
of males leave clan, but each spring in clan are some unrelated young animals
from the next clans appear. During the courtship season clans can unite to numerous
pack and young animals have opportunity to pass to the next clan.
In winter waheelas lead nomadic life, chasing herds of herbivores. Their favourite
prey includes smaller species like snow harelopes, but if necessary this animal
can eat any food – from murine rodents up to frozen corpses of large herbivores.
These animals are able to pass up to 30 kilometers per day, chasing a herd.
In winter fur toes of waheela become covered with very rich wool allowing large
animal to walk freely on surface of snow, almost not falling down. For spending
the night and rest waheelas dig in snow temporary holes to protect themselves
from wind and frost. In sharp frost and strong wind animals fill up an entrance
to the hole with snow. In summer waleelas turn to settled animals – there is
much more prey around, and females give birth to posterity. Den of this animal
is a deep and wide hole. Usually waheelas try to occupy and expand any ready
hole, but if necessary can dig out a den in well disguised place – usually under
roots of wind fallen tree. The same den can be used during some years in succession.
If parasites breed there in too great number, animal can arrange a new den nearby
and do not use old holes for some years in succession. Frequently in old dens
young animals settle, left of clan and not found a new place for life yet.
Waheela female rise to 2-3 puppies covered with wool, but blind and deaf. Puppies
stay in den for a long time. When their eyes open, and they begin to hear, puppies
start to study the world around. While they are weak and helpless, one or two
females remain to protect den and to look after all puppies of clan. As posterity
grows up, adults waheelas feed up young growth with semidigested meat, and then
belch fresh meat for them. At the age of about 4 months young animals leave
holes and start leading nomadic life. At this time “aunty” looks after them
– one of adult females of clan, mother of some of young animals. Many young
animals perish during the first year of life. Life expectancy of adult animals
seldom exceeds 15 years.
For Charles (girl!)
Berl
(Quasiursus asiaticus)
Order: Carnivores (Carnivora)
Family: Mustelids (Mustelidae)
Habitat: Eurasia, North America, temperate and cold areas, from the north of
Europe up to Greenland.
Picture by Tim Morris
Large species of carnivorous mammals are the most vulnerable
species in an ecosystem. At strong (though and convertible) fluctuations of
number of prey number of predators can fall down to critical level, and the
species appears at the edge of extinction. Development of extensive territories
of land by people, and the destruction of habitats followed it had strongly
reduced number of large predators, and they had not gone through ecological
crisis at the boundary of Holocene and Neocene.
After extinction of mankind efficiency of ecosystems began to restore. Numerous
descendants of small species, mainly rodents and lagomorphs had occupied the
place of large herbivores exterminated by people and had become extinct because
of natural reasons. After herbivores, some predators also had strongly increased
in size. Among large predators the serious application for domination in fauna
had been made by representatives of mustelid family. In temperate and partly
in subtropical zone of Northern hemisphere their representative, berl, is found.
It is a huge carnivorous species of mustelids, the analogue of fossil marten
Perunium, and the descendant of ferret (Mustela putorius). Its ancestors, probably,
took in ecosystems a place similar to wolverine (Gulo gulo), and any of their
species had managed to enter large-sized class. This attempt appeared extremely
successful.
Berl is massive and sluggish species of mustelids, in size compared to bear
(hence the name: “berl” is the ancient Slavic name of bear). The height of adult
animal at a shoulder exceeds one meter, length of body without tail is up to
three meters; weight is over 400 kgs. The adult animal, as against bears, hardly
swarms up trees (cubs, on the contrary, do it very dexterously). By constitution
berl resembles polar bear (Ursus maritimus) of human epoch – it has rather small
head on strong neck, large trunk and muscled paws. As against bears, berl has
long fluffy tail. It is solitary and aggressive species of mammals, and by position
of tail each individual expresses the mood, not entering close contact to relatives.
Fur of berl is rich, especially in winter. Summer colouring of wool of animal
varies from dark grey up to beige, straw-colored and even black. Usually lighter-colored
individuals live at the south of area, and darker ones – in forests of temperate
zone. These animals are able to change color of wool to winter. Individuals
from cold areas become snow-white in winter, and in more southern areas winter
fur of animal turns grayish. Individuals from southern borders of area are almost
unable to change color of winter wool – it becomes thicker and only a little
lighter. In winter berl keeps activity even in ringing frosts.
Holocene bears were omnivorous and even mainly herbivorous ones (except for
polar bear). Berl is an exclusive predator. Using huge physical strength, it
attacks large mammals, making the basis of its diet: in Eurasia obda,
aurochid, nozdrokh,
shurga, in North America giant
wood porcupine, in Greenland snow
porcupine and skewhorn.
Berl can not chase its prey, therefore it uses another tactics – it pursues
herd of herbivores during the long time while the weakest animal will keep abreast.
When prey appears far enough from relatives, berl rushes on it and kills by
impact of paw – it simply brings down animal on the ground and breaks its neck.
Hunting takes a lot of time and forces, therefore berl aspires to use food resources
maximum full. This predator stays near killed prey for a long time: in summer
while meat will start to spoil, and in cold season while on carcass there is
at least something edible. Also berl willingly eats carrion, or takes by force
prey of smaller predators.
This predator is solitary animal; each individual has extensive fodder territory.
Berl marks borders of territory by unpleasantly smelling liquid which is secreting
from anal glands. The animal leaves marks on stones and trunks of trees. In
courtship season (in the beginning of autumn) males wander on territories of
females, and couple with them. Only at this time females become more tolerant
to presence of adult relatives in their territory.
At the end of spring when it becomes warm enough, the female arranges in forest
carefully disguised den in which brings posterity: two – three blind and helpless
cubs. The posterity develops rather slowly: only at bi-monthly age cubs start
to leave den and to explore the world around. They spend a lot of time in games
– swarm up trees, combat and simulate hunting, “attacking” on trunks of trees
fallen on the ground. In autumn the posterity finally abandons shelter, and
studies to hunt. Young animals keep in common with the female during all next
year and all this time demand attention from the part of mother. Therefore the
female of berl brings posterity only once in two years.
Oshkooy berl
Picture by Wovoka
Berl is widely settled in Eurasia and at the north of North
America. It lives mainly in areas of coniferous and deciduous forests, forming
a number of subspecies. At the territory of Siberia and Far East very large
nominative subspecies great, or Siberian berl (Quasiursus
asiaticus asiaticus) is found. At this subspecies there is the darkest
summer colouring of fur, and winter fur is greyish-white. At the north of Europe
it is replaced by smaller European subspecies, mechka* (Quasiursus
asiaticus occidentalis) which has the smaller size and reddish or yellowish
colouring of summer fur. The north of Eurasia and North America is occupied
by indistinctly separated from these forms subspecies oshkooy**
berl (Quasiursus asiaticus leucos) with snow-white winter and
dark grey summer fur. This animal lives in woods of Far North, often hunts and
gathers carrion at the coast of Arctic Ocean, and migrates on ice to northern
islands in winter. At the south of area this kind forms hybrid forms with European
and Asian subspecies.
At the territory of North America the Asian berl is replaced by two close species.
Picture by Tony Johnes
Mountain berl, or ueb (Quasiursus montanophilus) lives in woods of Rocky Mountains ridges, coming along high-mountainous areas far to the south (up to territory of Mexico). This species dark grey summer fur, often with white spots on lower jaw and breast; at some individuals there is white stomach. This species is only a little smaller than Siberian berl, especially the representatives of northern populations distinguished by shaggy rich fur. Winter fur at this species is bluish-grey. Ueb differs from Asian berl in larger head and more flat teeth – it is appreciably less selective in food. In summer this animal often eats vegetative forage – mushrooms and berries.
Picture by Alexander Smyslov
Eastern berl (Quasiursus appalachensis) is much smaller than its western relative, and is approximately equal in the size to European mechka. It is colored yellowish-brown color and keeps such color of wool the year round. This species differs in lightest constitution among the relatives, and swarms up trees much better. It occupies evergreen and semi-deciduous forests of the eastern part of North America.
Pictures by Alexander Smyslov
In Eastern Asia there is one more species of this genus - tiny berl (Quasiursus minimus). This animal is the analogue of wolverine, medium-sized carnivorous species (its growth at a shoulder is no more than half meter). It inhabits forests of various types, woodlands and mountain forests, and also boggy woods in river valleys. This animal eats various mammals, large birds and fish. It is able to climb on trees, to swim and to dive. The skin of tiny berl has pale-yellow color, and paws are dark brown; on muzzle there is dark “mask”.
Picture by Alexander Smyslov
Red berl (Quasiursus rufus) living in Japan is close to this species. It is larger, than tiny berl (growth at a shoulder is about 60 cm), more thickset and strong combined. At this animal there is rich rusty red fur and wide feet – it feels well in high mountains and easily moves on snow, not failing down. Red berl lives in northern part and mountain areas of Japan Islands, preferring woody districts and thickets of bamboo. It also is a predator, and prefers to hunt mammals.
* “Mechka” is also Slavic name of bear;
** “Oshkooy” is the name of polar bear at folks of the North of Eurasia.
Siberian
sabertooth (Machairolynx sibirica)
Order: Carnivores (Carnivora)
Family: Cats (Felidae)
Habitat: Northern Eurasia, Beringian Isthmus, northwest of North America.
Pictures by Sauron from FurNation
After mass extinction at the boundary of Holocene and Neocene
the variety of predatory animals has appreciably decreased, and some their families
have almost completely disappeared. The most successful among them representatives
of weasel and civet families appeared, but except for them in separate areas
of Earth representatives of cats (Felidae), the most specialized family of predators,
and also some other predatory animals were kept. Large cats have died out, but
the family has escaped due to the variety and ecological plasticity of small
cats which were developed later to large forms. One of the largest cats of Neocene
is Siberian sabertooth, the descendant of lynx (Lynx).
This relic representative of feline family is the large prey hunter. It is possible
to guess it easily, having looked at the constitution of animal - this predator
is not similar to cheetah or leopard chasing swift-footed catch. Body of sabertooth
is very massive: this is a tiger-sized animal (weighting about 350 kgs), but
its figure resembles bear more: legs are thicker with wide pads (animal began
almost plantigrade one). Back legs are a little bit longer than front ones,
back is inclined forward. The short tail has got to this animal as the inheritance
from the ancestor. Wool colouring is sandy-yellow with dark-grey spots, to winter
it changes to white with ashy shade (this phenomenon is the exception among
cats not changing color of wool in winter), stains on winter fur completely
disappear. The winter wool is much longer and also thicker than summer one:
it is the adaptation to life in conditions of continental climate of Northeast
Asia with rigorous snow winters.
The large prey hunter, Siberian sabertooth is perfectly equipped for preying
of large thick-skinned animals. Its head is rather large (length of skull is
up to 30 cm), the bottom jaw is very mobile and can open widely. In the top
jaw long 15-centimetric saber-like canines with the wide bases stick up – it
is the main hunting weapon of animal. More successfully to use this weapon,
the skull is in addition “strengthened” – bases of canines are very wide, skull
is high with short obverse department. Besides at sabertooth there are very
strong neck and powerful forepaws – it is directly connected to way of hunting
of this animal.
Siberian sabertooth is the tireless nomade of open spaces of Siberia and Beringia.
This animal literally “pastures” herds of large herbivores, following them during
migrations. The most important catch of an animal is obda,
huge herbivorous animal of Siberia. For hunting for this giant sabertooth uses
tactics of attack from ambush, but it frequently avowedly attacks animals kept
up with herd. Predator attacks catch sideways, striking during the throw by
one paw on shoulder, by another one – on head of prey. Usually young or weak
animal falls aside, and it is easy for finishing off by bite in throat. At the
sting canines of sabertooth pass below backbone (in other way they simply can
be broken) and break off blood vessels and trachea of prey. If the chosen prey
is strong enough, predator simply wounds it by bite and follows herd, expecting
while wounded prey will get behind neighbours, bleeding profusely. One carcass
of obda suffices to the predator in summer time for one week - while meat will
deteriorate to the uneatable condition. In winter when meat is better kept,
the preied animal suffices approximately for two weeks. But more often such
catch should be divided with set of feathered and four-footed scavengers; therefore
sabertooth had to hunt more often. One animal theoretically should supervise
territory 200 - 300 square kilometers, but it leads nomadic life, therefore
sometimes “shepherds” of different obda herds meet on summer pastures of these
animals. At this time pairing and birth of cubs concepted the last year happen.
At summer obda pastures sabertoothes sometimes unite for hunting, together getting
the next dinner.
Pairing of sabertoothes occurs at the end of summer shortly before leaving of
obda herds to the south. The female ready to pairing calls the male by sounds
similar to loud bass mewing. Usually near such female two - three males keep
but only choosed by female one can couple with her. Between males there are
skirmishes during which contenders beat each other by paws and show force, peeling
bark from trees. Males ready to pairing also mark by urine tree trunks – smell
plays the important role for the female in choice of the partner. When pair
is formed, male and female banish single males together. Pairing at these cats
repeats many times during three or four days while the female is ready to accept
attention of the male. At this time the male looks after her, licking her wool.
He also marks a site of wood around female with urine to warn contenders, that
the present female is occupied. During courtship games animals eat of nothing.
After pairing the female walks out from the territory marked by male.
Pregnancy at this species proceeds a long time: more than nine months. The reason
of it is that fertilized oosperm does not develop at all about half-year. Development
of embryos begins approximately at first half of winter, and actually proceeds
little more than three months. Cubs are born just when the female comes to the
north after wintering in woods.
For birth of cubs the female sabertooth makes a lair under roots of trees or
among stones. In pack there are two or three cubs. Newborn sabertoothes are
covered with dark-brown wool on which stains are already appreciable. At them
eyes and ears are closed, and first two weeks of life they are absolutely helpless
and completely depend on mother.
Within four months, before autumn obda migration cubs grow and develop quickly.
At this time they actively study to hunt, accompanying with mother. During migrations
behind obda herds sabertooth cubs remember district, and later, becoming independent,
begin “shepherd” herds.
Young growth stays with mother up to one-year-old age. When families come to
northern obda pastures again, young animals leave mother and start to hunt independently.
Sexual maturity at young females comes at the second year of life, at males
at the third year. Life expectancy can reach 40 years.
In east areas of Northern America Siberian sabertooth is replaced by close species
of easier constitution – Nearctic
sabertooth (Machairolynx nearctica), or missopeho
(named after giant lynx of the North, the hero of Indian folk tales). At this
animal canines are shorter; colouring is lighter and does not vary for winter.
Constitution of Nearctic sabertooth is more graceful: legs are longer, size
of body is less. It is connected with specialization to feeding by smaller swift-footed
prey. As against to Siberian sabertooth, these species is settled and territorial.
Taiga
crail (Rallogeranus collaris)
Order: Gruiform birds (Gruiformes)
Family: Crails (Neogruidae)
Habitat: Eastern Siberia, the areas of broken taiga overgrown with deciduous
forest and bushes.
Crails are very characteristic migrant birds of Holarctic. Various species of
these birds replace each other at the vast territory from Eastern Siberia up
to Greenland, and at the wintering it is possible to meet them at the wetlands
of China and at the Great Antigua. Crails are ecological analogues of cranes,
the birds not sustained the anthropogenous pressure in human epoch. Actually,
these are descendants of smaller species of rails, kept, obviously, in territory
of Siberia.
Taiga crail is rather large bird: growth of an adult bird reaches 120 cm. The
majority of crails prefers wetland habitats, but taiga crail, as opposed to
them, settles in dry areas. It prefers to nest at “obda roads”, in bushes and
in tall grass.
Appearance of this bird is appreciable enough due to colouring. Taiga crail
has white head and neck, and on neck there is wide black “collar”. On body of
this bird plumage is bicoloured. The back and wings of bird are of camouflage
color – yellowish-brown with dark cross strips on plumage. When the bird drops
to the ground and hides head and neck under wing, it becomes almost invisible
against the grass background. The bottom part of body is black; plumage on bottom
side of wings is also black. On sides of bird there are large white spots, and
primarily feathers in the bottom part are white, and the top third of them is
also black. During the courtship display, and also at protection of nest and
posterity this bird rises almost vertically and stretches wings widely. Thus
white marks become well appreciable on black background. If the enemy continues
an attack, or the herbivore does not want to come out from nest, bird can pass
to active defense and strikes strong impacts by beak.
Courtship games of taiga crails begin right after their retirning from the wintering
places, while grass on “obda roads” is still low. Courtship demonstrations of
these birds include “dance” of male near the female with wings stretched and
run for the female. Inviting the female to the place chosen for nest, male holds
in beak blade or stick, and “bows”, lowering thus semi-spreaded wings.
Taiga crails arrange nests at the edge of “obda roads”, in bush. In clutch of
these birds there are two or three eggs hatching only by female. Male protects
borders of the territory of nesting pair and drives small predators away. By
joint efforts the couple of crails can drive away from nest even waheela – protecting
nest or brood against large predator, crails peck its nose or eyes.
Incubation lasts 35 days. Chicks hatch well advanced and independent enough.
They are covered with yellowish down with black longitudinal strips on body.
Having dried under female, they at once leave nest and feed almost independently.
Parents occasionally feed them up with insects, holding food in beaks. As against
chicks of cranes, crail chicks do not express aggression to each other.
Favourite food of adult birds includes catydids and grasshoppers; birds masterly
catch them due to abilities to running and lightning reaction. When chicks hatch,
families of these birds keep near to herds of large herbivorous mammals. They
feed on their parasites – ticks, horseflies and mosquitoes, gathering them from
wool of animals. Besides at movement large animals frighten insects, lizards
and small rodents making a significant part of bird food.
In the beginning of an autumn, when obda herds migrate to the south, taiga crails
migrate for wintering to the south of Japan Islands and to China. At the wintering
these birds keep near to sea coasts and gather various small animals at the
coast and in coastal vegetation.
Siberian
woolcreeper (Lanophilornis poststurnus)
Order: Passerine birds (Passeriformes)
Family: Starlings (Sturnidae)
Habitat: Siberia, Northern Asia, Beringia. Wintering in Southern and Southeast
Asia.
Male
Female
Picture by Simon
Rendering by Alexander Smyslov
Numerous herds of herbivorous mammals involve various parasites.
Diverse dipterans, from midges up to horseflies and botflies, and also ticks
are basic groups of animals feeding on mammalian blood. The congestion of these
arthropods involves to herds various birds – even large herons. But the great
amount of saviors of megafauna from blood-sucking parasites includes passerine
birds. On various continents this work was carried out by representatives of
various families of songbirds. In Neocene Siberia on herds of giant mammals
Siberian woolcreeper, the descendant of common starling (Sturnus vulgaris),
is engaged in gathering of parasites.
In human epoch common starlings were frequently engaged in clearing of large
herbivores (more often domestic cattle) of parasites, and in same time in Africa
there were oxeckers (Buphagus), clearing representatives of local megafauna
of parasites. Therefore transition to similar way of life at descendants of
starling has passed very quickly and has demanded the minimal changes in anatomy.
Siberian woolcreeper differs from common starling externally very little. It
is a small bird (not larger than starling) with short rigid tail serving as
a support at movement, and straight pointed beak, with which help bird is able
to take easily even strongly clung ticks from skins of animals.
Colouring of this bird is very remarkable and contrast, due to it herbivorous
mammals quickly find out these birds and are not frightened of them. Male has
black head with white beak, and around of eyes white feathers form a kind of
“glasses”. Back, primarily feathers and coverts of bird are also black, and
stomach is motley. On stomach each feather is black, but has white tip, and
because of it stomach has “marble” colouring. On head and wings iridescent metal
shine is clearly expressed. On the background of black plumage of bird there
is a bright contrast mark – rump feathers are bright red (this colouring is
well appreciable in flight), and feathers of rather short straight tail are
white with black tip. Female has more modest colouring: on the top part of body
black color is replaced by brown, and on rump there is no red mark. “Glasses”
at females are narrower, than at males.
Due to the change of way of life Siberian woolcreeper has got a little bit different
anatomy of legs, compared to its ancestor. Starlings were able to walk on the
ground well, but Siberian woolcreeper makes it hardly. It moves on the ground
by short bounds, and obviously prefers to perch on vertical surfaces. Its paws
became shorter and stronger, than at starling. Bird has long toes with pointed
bent claws, which help to climb on sides and to keep on animals. But in connection
with such features this bird now perches on branches not like starling, across
the branch, but like woodpecker or nightjar – along it. Besides Siberian woolcreeper
dexterously swarms up trunks of trees.
This kind haвs inherited from starling propensity to nesting in tree-trunk hollows,
and requires for nesting available old trees with extensive hollows. Therefore
Siberian woolcreepers prefer to live in mosaic landscape, where sites of forests
adjoin to open areas. These birds nest at the edges of “obda roads”, where Siberian
herbivores mostly live.
Siberian woolcreeper is excellent imitator – it includes fragments of songs
of other birds to its own song. In addition young birds listen to adults, adopt
from them songs already copied at another birds, and transform them from generation
to generation. Therefore depending on habitats of birds their song may vary
considerably. And the alarm signal of Siberian woolcreeper is well known to
any herbivore familiar with these birds – it is loud and sharp gnashing trill.
Due to sharp sight this bird is good “sentinel” of herds of animals, warning
them about approach of danger.
In spring males of this kind compete in singing, trying to involve to their
territories as many females, as possible. The centre of male’s territory is
wide hollow in tree trunk. It is a polygamous species, and every male gathers
at its territory up to five females, which in common arrange nest in tree hollow,
covering it with wool of large animals, hatch out and in common bring up the
brood numbering up to 20 nestlings. Nestlings depending on saturation change
their location in nest – the hungriest ones creep up to an entrance of nest,
and receive food the first, and then they are replaced by others.
While some birds incubate the clutch, others feed, flying to pastures to large
herbivorous mammals. Male protects territory, occasionally taking part in nestlings
feeding. During the summer birds have time to bring up only one brood. In second
half of summer adult and young birds feed near herbivores together.
Siberian woolcreeper eats insects, gathering them mainly on sides of animals.
It prefers to hunt large insects – horseflies and botflies, and also searches
for creeping parasites – lice, ticks and caterpillars of obda wool moth. Therefore
it does not compete to obda bats and normally gets on with them. Under the tongue
of bird there is an advanced sac of extensible skin, used for prey gathering.
At females it is advanced better, than at male. This is an adaptation for bringing
up of nestlings, which helps to bring to the nest more food for one flight.
All warm period of year Siberian woolcreeper keeps near herds of herbivores,
and when autumn comes, it flies out to the south of Eurasia, flying over Himalayas.
This bird winters at Hindustan and at Near East. At the wintering places bird
is also feeding on herbivores, clearing them from parasites.
The idea about existence of the present species was proposed by Simon, the forum member.
Obda
wool moth (Obdobia lanivora)
Order: Butterflies (Lepidoptera)
Family: Tineid moths (Tineidae)
Habitat: Siberia, parasite in wool of large herbivorous mammals.
Picture by Tony Johnes
Insects could go through epoch of human domination rather successfully – among
them mainly local endemic species have disappeared, being connected to natural
communities damaged from human activity. But a variety of insects at the family
level remained almost constant in Neocene. Formation of new groups of terrestrial
vertebrates in Neocene resulted in formation of new relations between them and
insects. The example of such relations is shown by obda wool moth – rather large
representative of its family turned from the inhabitant of organic remains to
true parasite.
This species of moths has the maximal wingspan of about 20 mm (male does not
exceed 13 mm). Wings of these insects are long and narrow, covered on edge with
set of hail-like scales. Colouring of body and wings is soft – brownish-white
with grey wavy pattern on front wings. Adult males of this kind do not eat,
and females eat flower pollen.
Worm-like mobile larva of obda wool moth lives in wool of live obda. Due to
such habitat it keeps activity even in most severe winter colds, being warmed
by body heat of this huge mammal. Duuring the winter larva of obda wool moth
eats wool of animal. By the end of winter it pupates and when warm season comes,
during spring moult of host animal, adult moths appear. They fly rather early
in spring, and it is their main protection against predators. Moths of winter
generation have time to lay eggs, while the general body of insectivorous animals
– birds and bats – has not flied from the south. Adult moths fly low above grass
– this way they are not noticed by bats. In addition body covered with thin
hair suppresses the echolocation signal, and bats simply do not notice these
insects.
For one year three generations of these insects replace each other – the first
one, submitted by the largest individuals, appears from larvae wintered in wool
of obda. Within one summer two more generations of smaller and quickly developing
individuals alternate, and individuals of the second summer generation lay eggs,
from which wintering larvae burst.
After the pairing takes place, females search for an animal, in which wool their
larvae can develop. Winter and the first summer generations of obda wool moth
are not too legible in food – they easily lay eggs in wool of snow harelopes
and shurgas. Even berl may carry on its body larvae of this moth. But moths
of the second summer generation flying literally in last days of summer, display
strict selectivity in choice of the host – they lay eggs exclusively in wool
of obda, which at this time begins wandering to the south.
The winter generation develops during the longest time. In winter obdas grow
long white wool, and larvae of obda wool moths do not feel any lack of food.
Besides obda bat and various cleaner birds spend winter in the south, far from
obdas, and do not disturb the parasite.
The idea about existence of the present species was proposed by Simon, the forum member.
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