FUTURE

Life will continue on the earth for as long as the earth remains in existence, which will probably be for the next 5000 million years. How life will evolve over that period there is no way of knowing, but there is one thing of which we can be sure
and that is that the animals and plants will not remain as they are. The epoch following the one described on the previous pages will be characterized by a continuing movement of the earth's crust. The Atlantic Ocean may reach its maximum
width within the next few tens of millions of years and begin to contract once more, bringing North America and South America back towards the European and African sub-continents.
This may give rise to deep ocean troughs and new fold mountain ranges along the western side of the Northern Continent and
the reopening of the Bering Strait. The result would be the isolation of North America once more and the development of new animals on that continent. It is just as likely that, within the same period of time, new convection currents may arise deep in the mantle beneath the vast Northern Continent, and a new rift system may appear on the continental mass.
Such a rift system may follow one of the old sutures that indicate where earlier continents fused to form the supercontinent - such as the line of the old Ural Mountains or the Himalayan Uplands to the north of the Indian peninsula — or it may split the continent apart along a totally new line. Australia may continue to move northwards, sliding up the eastern edge of the Northern Continent, and may even tear away from it completely, isolating its fauna once more. Antarctica may, at a much
later stage, also drift away from its long-established polar position, Moving into more temperate climatic belts, it would offer itself as a vast virgin continent to be settled and colonized in the normal manner.

FUTURE
THE DESTINY OF LIFE

The far-reaching biological changes that will inevitably take place in the distant future will be heralded by a change in the evolution of the plants. As we have seen plants tend to evolve at a much slower rate than animals, but when a new advance does take place it has the most profound effect on animal life. The emergence of plants on to land first enabled the animals to leave the sea and to colonize the continents. The emergence of the flowering plants led to the evolution of the social insects. The extinction of the dominant tree ferns and cycads, and their replacement by broadleaved trees, led to the extinction of the great reptile groups and allowed the mammals to flourish.
It is certain that the next step in the evolution of the world's flora will lead to another such revolution in the development of animal life. Such a step is unlikely to be simple or obvious and so its prediction is something of an impossibility. It will, however, involve an increase in the efficiency of the plant's reproduction system. If that involves the replacement of seeds and fruits by another structure it will inevitably lead to the extinction of many creatures such as the birds and rodents that rely upon them for their staple diet. Other creatures will evolve in their place that will be able to reach and eat the new structures and new symbiotic relationships will develop in which the reproductive structures, in return for providing food for the animals, will be effectively fertilized or distributed by them in a way analogous to that in which birds distribute the seed of the berries on which they feed by passing them through their digestive system.
Whole new animal groups will appear independently of the floral evolution. Such groups will also rely on more sophisticated reproductive systems to give them the edge over the other groups still in existence. Further developments in sensory systems may be possible, giving an animal more awareness of its surroundings. An increase in intelligence to interpret this enhanced, sensual information would also be necessary and it may be that an intelligence as high as man's may evolve once more. Such developments may take place among the less specialized members of the most advanced groups that are around at the moment, such as the insectivores in the case of mammals or the crows in the case of birds, or they may arise from something that is with us at the moment but is so insignificant that it is constantly overlooked - after all, the mammals were scurrying about the feet of dinosaurs for some 100 million years before they came to anything. In any case many of the major groups of today will continue to soldier on even though their prominent position is usurped by newcomers; the reptiles are still around even though their day of glory has passed.

In the past the evolution of new forms of animal life has corresponded with the development of new plant life; the appearance of plants on land pre-empted the first land animals (A); the social insects evolved at the same time as the flowering plants (B); the dinosaurs existed when the earth was forested by giant ferns and cycads (C) and were replaced by the mammals only when the first broad-leaved trees appeared (D). Therefore the future evolution of new animal forms will most probably coincide with developments in the plant kingdom. A likely development is one that would reduce the number of seeds that a plant must produce to provide a single offspring. In this illustration (E) the tree's seeds, although fertilized in the usual way, do not drop to the ground when ripe but remain with the parent, where they begin to grow. The plants take root and reach maturity only when they are removed by herbivores and placed in direct sunlight.

Large-scale biological disasters such as occurred at the end of the Age of Man may take place again. If that happens there will once more be the wholesale destruction of large groups of animals followed by their rapid replacement by creatures evolved from the survivors. Despite the very great temporary change to the environment and ecosystem, such a disaster is unlikely to have a long-term detrimental effect on life as a whole.
Physical, non-biological disasters are possible, such as the impact of a large meteorite with the earth. If such a meteorite were large enough the resulting explosion may release vast volumes of dust into the atmosphere and reduce the intensity of solar radiation at the earth's surface quite considerably for a number of years. The result would be a decrease in plant growth, with the accompanying reduction in herbivorous animals and drastic effects on the populations of the carnivores.

An increase of the volume of interplanetary dust in the solar system will have a similar effect in reducing the amount of sunlight reaching the earth. The climatic effects of such occurrences will be far-reaching. The temperature of the earth's surface will fall and the ice-caps of the poles will grow and reach towards the equator. When such ice ages have happened on earth in times gone past they have led to the evolution of animals and plants equipped to stand up to such rigours rather than to any great damage to the basic structure of life itself.
The impact of a body huge enough to produce shock waves that could disrupt the composition of the atmosphere would undoubtedly cause widespread extinctions and may even render the continents totally barren. However, no matter how great the atmospheric damage is, there will still be some organism somewhere that will survive, even if such an organism is nothing more than a simple cell - the nature of life, as we have seen, is such that it is able to replicate itself and fill all possible niches. Evolution will begin again, the seas will teem with life once more and eventually the land will be recolonized.
What this new phase of earth's evolution will look like is impossible to predict, but we can be sure that the new animals will look nothing like those that we have known. The possibilities of genetic development are infinite and the surviving systems could be selected from innumerable possible combinations. Convergent evolution will not be able to reinstate the kinds of animals and plants with which we are familiar since the basic evolutionary stock will be so different and the niches to be occupied will be nothing like those we know now. An even bigger meteorite could destroy even the crustal fabric of the earth, but the larger the disaster we postulate the more unlikely it is to happen during the next 5000 million years.
By that time the sun will have used up all of the hydrogen available to it. Its core will have shrunk and its surface will have become much cooler. The sun's helium will then begin to react and the sun to expand, increasing its luminosity by many hundreds of times. This will mark the end of life on earth. As the temperature rises the organic reactions that support life will be no longer possible. The seas will boil away and the atmosphere will be stripped off. As the sun, now a red giant, continues to expand it will engulf all of the inner planets, including the earth. Before long all the material capable of supporting nuclear energy in the sun will be used up and, very rapidly, in terms of the geological time scale, it will collapse into a fraction of its former volume. The gravitational force involved in this collapse will make it shine as a white dwarf until, with all its energy dissipated, it fades into a dark cold lump - a black dwarf. The planets, if they physically survive, will be no more than dark cinders devoid of water and atmosphere and, incapable of supporting life ever again.
However, the chemical and physical reactions that took place to produce life on earth will take place, or may very well have taken place, again on other planets, in other solar systems. Such life forms will be specifically evolved to match the conditions found there, although what these conditions will be, and hence the forms of life that will evolve to cope with them, cannot possibly be imagined. It is almost certain that life will always exist somewhere in the universe in one form or another.

APPENDIX
GLOSSARY

Adaptive radiation The expansion of a single species into a number of new forms that are capable of filling a variety of vacant ecological niches. See the bats of Batavia (p. 109).
Allen's rule In animal groups with a large north-south range, the species or subspecies nearer the poles have smaller extremities. See the temperate ravene (p.40) and the polar ravene (p.63).
Batesian mimicry The resemblance of a harmless species to a dangerous or distasteful one to gain protection by association, c.f. Mullerian mimicry. See the terratail (p.110).
Bergmann's rule In animal groups with a large north-south range, the species or subspecies nearer the poles will be larger. See the rabbucks (p.38).
Brachiation Swinging by the hands and arms, a means of locomotion typical of tree-dwelling primates. See the ziddah (p.88).
Brood Parasite A creature that leaves its offspring with the brood of another to be cared for and tended by the parents of that brood. See the gandimot (p.63).
Browser An animal that eats leaves and shoots, c.f. Grazer. See the zarander (p.92).
Carnivore In general terms, an animal, either a predator or a scavenger, that eats meat. More precisely the term is restricted to members of the order Camivora. See the pamthret (p.54).
Cline A chain of subspecies. See the flightless auks (p.64).
Commensalism Living togedier or sharing the same food supply to gain mutual benefit. This relationship is not essential for the survival ot any of the parties involved, c.f. Parasitism and Symbiosis. See the rneaching and the lesser ptarmigan (p.63).
Convergent evolution The evolution of similar physiological or anatomical features by unrelated groups of animals. See the flooer (p.l09) and the flower-faced potoo (p.105).
Countershading A pattern of coloration in which the upper side of an animal is darker than the lower side. Countershading destroys the natural pattern of light and shade and makes an animal inconspicuous. See the picktooth (p.81).
Dentition The number, type and pattern of teeth. Fish, amphibians and reptiles have teeth that are all of the same shape and size. Mammals have teeth of various types: incisors (front teeth) for cutting and grasping, canines for piercing and premolars and molars (back teeth) for grinding and shearing.
Dimorphism, sexual A marked difference in structure or appearance between the sexes of the same species. See the matriach tinamou (p. 102).
Ecological niche The station occupied by an animal in an environment. The ecological niche determines a creature's mode of life, e.g. tree-dweller, grazer, etc.
Evolution The development of new species from earlier forms. Evolution can also apply to the development of the features of an animal's anatomy. These can be referred to as:

Genus The biological classification that embraces a group of related species.
Grazer An animal that eats grass, c.f. Browser.
Insectivore An animal that eats insects. More precisely the term is restricted to members of the order Insectivora. See the pfrit (p.49).
Invertebrate An animal without a backbone.
Marsupial A mammal giving birth to its young in an undeveloped state. Most marsupial young are reared in pouches situated on their mothers' abdomens, c.f. Placental. See the chuckaboo (p.97).
Mullerian mimicry The resemblance between a group of dangerous or distasteful species to gain mutual benefit, c.f. Batesian mimicry. See desert predators (p.75).
Natural Selection The persistence of animals best able to survive.
Opposability (fingers) The ability of one fingertip to touch the other fingers on the same hand. See the striger (p.91). Omnivore An animal that eats both plant and animal material.
Parallel evolution The evolution of similar anatomical or physiological features by related groups of animals. See the gigantelope (p.82) and the valuphant (p. 106).
Parasitism The feeding of one organism directly on another without the host gaining any benefit in return, c.f. Commensalism and Symbiosis. See the trovamp (p.92).
Patagia Flaps of skin used as wings in gliding animals. See the flunkey (p.88).
Photosynthesis The transformation within plants of inorganic nutrients into food using sunlight.
Placental A mammal that possesses a placenta through which it feeds its embryo young in the womb, c.f. Marsupial.
Plankton Animals and plants, mostly microscopic, that float passively in the water.
Plate tectonics The study of the major geological plates that make up the earth's crust.
Predator An animal that actively hunts, kills and eats other animals.
Prehensile Able to grasp and hold things - a term normally applied to tails. See the ziddah (p.88).
Primates The order of mammals that includes the apes and monkeys.
Prosimians The group of primates that includes lemurs and lorises. See the clatta (p. 91)
Scavenger An animal that eats the dead bodies of others. See the ghole (p.84).
Symbiosis Living closely together tor reasons of mutual survival, c.f. Commensalism and Parasitism. See the cleft-back antelope and the tick bird (p. 106).
Ungulate In general terms an animal with hooves, more precisely a member of the orders Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla. See the island continent of Lemuria (p.106).
Vertebrate An animal possessing a backbone
Wattle A fleshy appendage on the throat ol a bird. See the flightless guinea fowl (p.81).

Tree of life

INDEX

Page numbers in italic refer to the illustrations and their captions.

Adelie penguin, 16
Aepyornis, 15
Africa, continental drift, 106, 113; deserts, 71, 75; gigantelopes, 52; grasslands, 18; swamps, 95; tropical forests, 87, 88, 91; tropical grasslands, 79, 81, 82
agnathans, 27
agriculture, destruction of tropical forests, 87; and evolution of man, 32; increases desert regions, 71
alder trees, 37, 51
Alesimia lapsus, 88, 89
algae, Polar Ocean, 64
Allenopithecus nigroviridis, 95
Allen's rule, 18, 117
Allosaurus, 29
Altocephalus saddi, 106
amino acids, 12—13, 24
amphibians, 27, 28, 29
Amphimorphodus cynomorphus, 40; A. longipes, 40
Anabracchium struthioforme, 105
anchorwhip, 88, 88
Andrewsarchus, 30
Ankilosaurus, 29
ant, water, 95
Antarctica, 59, 97, 113
anteaters, 30; swimming, 94, 95
antelope, 52, 82, 106; cleft-back, 106, 107
apes, 30, 84, 88, 91
Apterocinclus longinuchus, 49
Aquambulus hirsutus, 49
Aquator adepsicautus, 75
Araneapithecus manucaudata, 88
Arboverspertilio apteryx, 109
archosaurs, 29, 29
Arctic, 21
Arctic Ocean, 59
armadillos, 30
Armasenex aedificator, 91
Amatechinos impenetrabilis, 42, 43
arthrodires, 67
arthropods, 26, 27
Asia, 52, 101; continental drift, 59; desert animals, 75; tropical forests, 91
Atlantic Ocean, 59, 113
auk, flightless, 64, 64, 65
Australia, 110; continental drift, 71, 79, 110, 113; grasslands, 18; marsupials, 31; tropical forests, 87, 97, 98
Australopithecus, 32
Avanguis pacausus, 110

baboon, 84
bacteria, 42
Balanoglossus spp., 26
Balenornis vivipera, 67
bardelot, 60, 61, 64
Batavia, 109
Batesian mimicry, 19
bats, 31, 46; on Batavia, 109; predator, 109; purrip, 46, 46, 47; surfbat, 109, 109
bear, polar, 20, 20, 60
beaver, 54, 54
beetles, 30
behaviour, role in evolution, 16, 16—17
Bergman's rule, 18, 117
Bering Strait, 59, 113
bipeds, South American grasslands, 105
birds, coniferous forests, 57; courtship rituals, 17; defensive behaviour, 16-17; desert regions, 76; evolution, 15, 28, 29; fish-eating, 49; flightless, 15, 49; in food chain, 20; future evolution, 114; insectivorous, 51, 60; nocturnal, 46; on Pacaus, 110; seabirds, 64, 67; South America, 102, 105; temperate woodlands, 45; tropical forests, 92, 98; tropical grasslands, 79, 81; tropical swamps, 95; tundra, 63; visual displays, 16, 17; wood-borers, 45; birds of prey, coniferous forests, 54; nocturnal, 46; Pacaus Archipelago, 110; temperate forests, 45; tropical forests, 88
Biston betularia, 18-19, 19
Bitis, 98
bivalves, 19
bootie bird, 62, 63
bower bird, 98
brachiopods, 26
broadbeak, 54, 54
browsing mammals, 52, 81
burrows, meaching, 63; sand flapjack, 72
Bustivapus septentreonalis, 62, 63
Butorides piscatorius, 49

cactus, 76
Caecopterus sp., 46
Cambrian, 26
camel, 75
camouflage, in evolution, 18-19, 19; slobber, 97; desert animals, 75; tropical grasslands, 81
Camptosaurus, 29
Canis, 51
capybaras, 105
Carboniferous, 27, 29
carnivores, 40, 54, 102; evolution, 19, 30, 31; in food chain, 20, 21, 20-1
Carnopapio spp., 84, 84, 85; C. grandis, 84, 85; C. longipes, 84, 85; C. vulgaris, 84, 85
Carnophilus ophicaudatus, 97
Carnosuncus pilopodus, 75
Castor spp., 54
Castratragus grandiceros, 106
cat family, 60, 84, 91
cedar trees, 51
cells, evolution, 25; genetics, 12-13, 12-13; structure, 12
Cenozoic, 29
Cepaea nemoralis, 18
cephalopods, 26
chaffinch, 17
chirit. 44, 45, 57
chiselhead. 56, 57, 57
chordates, 26
chromosomes, 12, 13
chuckaboo, 97, 97
Cladoselache, 27
clatta, 91
climate, desert regions, 71; role in evolution, 31; temperate woodlands, 37; tropical forests, 87, 88; tropical grasslands, 79; tundra, 59
clines, 15
coelenterates, 26
colour, desert animals, 75; in evolution, 18-19; mimicry, 19; tropical grasslands animals, 81
Composognathus, 29
coniferous forests. 39, 40. 51-7. 82
continental drift, see plate tectonics
corals, 26
cormorant, 16
Cornudens spp., 52, 82; C. horridus, 52; C. rastrostrius, 52
Corvardea niger, 63
courtship rituals, 17
cows, 39
crab, fiddler. 17
crane, Brolga, 16
Cretaceous. 19, 29. 30
crocodile. 28, 29
Cro-rnagnon man, 32
crow, 63, 114
Cursomys longipes, 105

Daemenops rotundus, 72
deciduous forests, 37, 45, 51
deer, 39
defence mechanisms, spitting featherfoot, 72; terratail, 110
Deinonychus, 29
Dendrocygna volubaris, 95
deoxyribonucleic acid see DNA
desert shark, 72, 73
Deserta catholica, 76
deserts, 71-6
devil, leaping, 72
Devonian, 27
Dimetrodon, 31
Dimorphoptilornis iniquitus, 98
Dinichthys, 27
Dinornis, 15
dinosaurs, 19, 28, 29, 30, 84, 101, 114; duck-billed, 52
Diplocaulus, 27
Diplodocus, 29
dipper, long-necked, 49, 49
distarterops, 64
DNA, 12-13, 13
dodo, 15
Dolabrodon fossor, 81
Dolihosoma, 27
Dolichotis, 105
dolphins, 18, 31
drummer, tree, 45, 45
ducks, 63; tree, 95, 95

eagles, 46
ears, desert animals, 72; truteal, 46
earthworms, 42, 92
echinoderms, 26, 26
eggs, reproduction, 13
elapid snakes, 98
elephant bird, 15
elephants, 30, 60, 82, 92
Elephas, 82
environment, man's effect on, 32; role in evolution, 14-15, 16, 19
Eogyrinus, 27
Equus, 18, 81
Eusthenopteron, 27, 27
evolution, animal behaviour, 16-17; birds, 28, 29; convergent, 18, 116, 117; form and development, 18-19, 26; future of, 114-16; genetic mutation, 12-13; invertebrates, 26-7, 26-7; mammals, 29, 30-1, 30-1, 114; man, 32, 32; natural selection, 13, 14-15, 18; parallel, 18, 117; plants, 114, 114; rate of, 19; reptiles, 27, 28-9, 28-9, 30; role of isolation in, 101-10

falanx, 40, 40, 41
fatsnake, 98, 98
featherfoot, spitting, 72, 72
feet, chirit, 45; grobbit, 75
fiddler crab, 17
finches, Galapagos islands, 15, 15
fish, evolution, 19, 26-7, 27; in food chain, 20; four-eyed, 101; lung, 27; pelagic, 64
fish-lizard, 18
Fistulostium setosum, 76
Flagellanguis viridis, 88
flapjack, sand, 72, 72, 73
flies, on cleft-back antelope, 106; nocturnal, 46
flooer, 108, 109
Florifacies mirabila, 108, 109
flukes, 42
flunkey, 88, 89
food chains, 20-1, 20-1
forests, coniferous, 39, 40, 50—7, 82; deciduous, 37, 45; evergreen, 37; gallery forest, 87; South American, 102-3; tropical, 39, 86-99
Formicederus paladens, 92
fortresses, meaching, 63
four-eyed fish, 101
foxes, 20, 63
Fringilla coelebs, 17

gaboon viper, 98
Galapagos islands, 15, 101
Gallopitta polygna, 92
gametes, 13
gandimot, 62, 63
gannets, 16
Gazella, 81
gazelle, 81
genetics, 12-13, 12-13; control of behaviour, 17; mutations, 13, 16; survival of genes, 17
ghole, 84
giantala, 98, 99
gigantelope, 52, 82, 82, 83, 84, 85, 106; long-necked, 82, 82; woolly, 52, 60, 61, 82
giraffe, 81
goat, 39
goose, tree, 45, 45
Grandidorcas roeselmivi, 82
grasslands, role in evolution, 31; South American, 104-5; temperate, 36-49; tropical, 18, 21, 78-85
grazing animals, in Lemuria, 106; South American grasslands, 105; tropical grasslands, 79, 81
great crested grebe, 16
Grima frondiforme, 42
groath, 68, 69
grobbit, 75, 75
grouse, sage, 16
growth, DNA replication, 12
Gryseonycta rostriflora, 105, 109
guinea fowl, flightless, 80, 81
gull, herring, 15; lesser black-backed, 15; vega, 15
gurrath, 102, 103
Gynomorpha parasitica, 102

hadrosaurs, 52
Halcyonova aquatica, 95
hanging bird, 45, 45
Harundopes virgatus, 49
Hastatus volans, 102
Hawaii, 109
hawkbower, 98, 98
Hebecephalus montanus, 68
hedgehog, 42
herbivores, 39, 40; coniferous forests, 51; defensive behaviour, 16; evolution, 30, 31; in food chains, 20, 20, 21, 21; in Lemuria. 106; South American grasslands, 105; tropical grasslands, 79, 81, 82
heron, 63; angler, 49, 49
Herpestes, 102
Himalayas, 82, 97, 113
hippopotamus, 92
hiri-hiri, 96, 97
Hirudatherium saltans, 92
Homo erectus, 32; H. sapiens, 32
hornhead, 52, 52, 53, 54, 68. 82; common. 53; helmeted, 52, 53; water, 52, 53
horns, gigantelope, 82; groath, 68; hornhead, 52; rundihorn, 82
horrane, 84, 85
horses, 14, 14, 18, 30, 39
Humaciurus spinacaudatus, 54
humus, 37, 87
Hydrochoerus, 105

ice ages, 116
Iceland, 59
ichthyosaurs, 31
Ichthyosaurus, 28, 29
Ichthyostega, 27, 27
Indian peninsula, 52, 113; collision with main-land Asia, 101; monsoon forests, 87; tropical grasslands, 81; insectivores, birds, 45, 51, 60; evolution, 30, 114; nocturnal, 46; in temperate woodlands, 42, 45
insects, 30; evolution, 114, 114; in food chain. 20; mimicry, 19; nocturnal, 46; survival of genes, 17; in tropical forests, 87; tundra, 59, 60
Insulornis, 110; I. aviphaga, 110, 110, 111; I. harti, 110; I. macrorhyncha, 110, 110; I. piciforma, 110, 110
invertebrates, 26, 26, 42
Invigilator commensalis, 106
islands, role in evolution, 15, 101; volcanic, 15, 101, 109, 110
isolation, role in evolution, 101-10

janiset, 40
jaw, evolution of, 30, 31
jellyfish, 26
jerboa, 72, 75
Jurassic, 29, 30

kangaroo, 97, 98, 105
khiffah, 90, 91, 91
khilla, 75, 75
kidneys, desert animals, 71, 72
kingfisher, toothed, 95, 95

lagomorphs, 30, 105
Lagopa minutus, 63
land snail, 18
larch trees, 51
latitude, influence on animal shape and form, 18
leaper, desert, 74, 75
legs, falanx, 40; rabbuck, 39
lemming, 60
Lemuria, 106
lemur, 88
Lepidonasus lemurienses, 106
lichen. 51, 59, 60
life, origins of, 24-5; see also evolution
lion. 40
lizards, 29, 42, 76; fin, 76, 77; marine, 101
Loxodonta, 82
lutie, 46, 46

Macrolagus spp., 39, 39
Macropus spp., 97
magpie, 63
Malagasy, 15, 106
mammals, Australian, 97; browsing, 52; coniferous forests, 51; defence mechanisms, 54; evolution, 29, 30-1, 50-1, 114; future evolution, 114; tropical forests, 88, 91; wetlands, 49
man, destruction of tropical forests, 87; disappearance of, 32; effect on coniferous forests, 51; effect on temperate woodlands and grasslands, 37, 39; evolution, 32, 32
Manambulus perhorridus, 109
mangrove forests, 87
maple trees, 37
maras, 105
marsupials, 18, 30, 31, 31, 60, 97, 98, 102, 105
Mauritius, 15
meaching, 62, 63, 63
Megalodorcas sp., 52; M. borealis, 60, 61. 82; M. giganteus, 82
Megazostrodon, 30
Melesuncus sylvatius, 46
meteorites, 116
mice, 42, 46
Microlagus mussops, 46
mid-Atlantic ridge, 59
midges, 49
migration, tropical grasslands, 79; tundra, 60
millipede, 27, 30
mimicry, 19
moa, 15
mole, tusked, 42, 42
molluscs, 26
mongoose, 84, 102
monkeys, 30, 88, 91; marsupial, 97; swamp, 95; swimming, 94, 95
monotremes, 30, 31
monsoon forests, 87
mosasaurs, 28
mosquitoes, 49
mosses, 51, 59, 60
moths, 46; peppered, 18-19, 19
mountains, Arctic, 68; Far East, 97
mud-guiper, 94, 95, 95
Mullerian mimicry, 19
mustellids, 102
mutations, genetic, 13. 16
Myrmevenarius amphibius, 95

Nataralces maritimus, 64
Natopithecus ranapes, 95
natural selection, 13, 14-15, 18
Neopardalotus subterrestris, 98
nests, bower birds, 98; khiffah, 91; water ants, 95
New Zealand, 15
night stalker, 108, 109
nightglider, 102, 102
Nixocricetus lemmomorphus, 63
nocturnal animals, 46
North America, continental drift, 59, 113; deserts, 76; horses, 18; land-bridge to South America, 102, 105; wetlands, 49 North Pole, 59, 64 Northern Continent, 64, 97, 113; coniferous forests, 51, 54; formation of, 59; snakes, 98; wetlands, 49 Nyctosaurus, 29

Oligokyphus, 31
Oncherpestes fodrhami, 102
Ophiocaudatus insulatus, 110
Ornithosuchus, 29
Oromustela altifera, 68
owls, 21, 46
oxen, 39

Pacaus Archipelago, 110
Pachycephala pectoralis, 110
Pacific Ocean, 15, 76, 109. 110
Palatops spp., 76
Pallidogale nudicollum, 84
pampas, 105
pamthret, 54, 55, 68
Paraloxus targa, 57
parashrew, 68, 68
parasites, 20; flukes, 42; gandimot, 63; matriarch tinamou, 102; tick bird, 106; trovamp, 92
Parops lepidorostrus, 54, 54
parrots, 110
Pelagornids, 67
Pendavis bidactylus, 45
penguin, 64, 67, 109; Adelie, 16
Pennapus saltans, 72
Pennatacaudus volitarius, 68
permafrost, 59
Permian, 29
pfrit, 48, 49, 49
Phalorus phalorus, 60
Phaseolomidae, 97
Phobocebus hamungulus, 84
Phocapotamus lutuphagus, 95
photosynthesis. 20, 21, 25, 26-7, 88
pickrooth, 81, 81
pigs, 30, 92
pilofile, 60, 60
pine chuck, common, 56, 57
Pingophis viperaforme, 98
pitta, giant, 92. 92
placental mammals, 18, 30-1, 31, 97, 102
placoderms, 27, 27
plankton, 20, 67
plants, 26; evolution, 19; in food chain, 20, 21; future evolution, 114, 114; role in evolution, 114, 114
plate tectonics, 101, 106, 110, 113
Platycaudatus structor, 72
platypus, 30
Pleistocene, 32
plesiosaurs, 31
Plesiosaurus, 28, 29
pliosaurs, 31, 67
Polar Ocean, 59, 64
porpin, 66, 67
posset, omnivorous, 98, 99
potoo, flower-faced. 105. 105. 109
predator rat, 40, 40, 41, 42, 54, 60, 64
predators, coniferous forests, 54; desert regions, 72, 75, 76; in food chain, 20, 21; marsupial, 97; rodents, 40; South American, 102; tropical forests, 88, 91; tropical grasslands, 84; tundra, 60, 63
primates, evolution. 30, 31; tropical forests, 88; tropical grasslands, 84
Proboscisuncus spp., 45
Procerosus elephanasus, 92
proteins, cell genetics, 12-13
Protocornudens, 52
Psammonarus spp., 72
Pseudofraga, sp., 54
Pseudostruthio gularis, 81
ptarmigan, lesser, 63, 63
Pteranadon, 29
Pterodactylus, 29
pterosaurs, 28, 29, 31
puff adder, 98
pytheron, 64, 64

quail, long-legged, 76, 76
Quetzalcoatlus, 29

rabbits. 30, 39, 46, 68, 81
rabbucks, 38, 39, 39, 52, 54, 81, 81, 84, 106; Arctic, 38; common, 38; desert, 38; hopping, 39; running, 39
raboon, 84, 84, 85; giant, 84, 85
rain forests, 39, 87-98
Raphus, 15
rapide, 40
rats, 30, 40; predator, see predator rat; sand, 75
ravene, 40; polar, 63, 63; temperate 63
reedstilt, 48, 49
Remala madipella, 109
reproduction, sexual, 12, 13; vegetative, 59
reptiles, desert regions, 76; evolution, 27, 28-9, 28-9, 30; tropical forest. 88
Reteostium cortepellium, 97
Rhamphorhynchus, 29
rhinoceros, 82
ribonucleic acid, see RNA
rift valleys, 106
rivers, tropical forests, 87
RNA, 12-13, 13
rodents, 40; coniferous forests, 57; desert regions, 72. 75; evolution. 30; jumping, 105: South American grasslands, 105; running, 105; temperate forests, 46; tundra, 63
rootsucker, 76, 76
ruffle, 68, 68
ruminants, 52
rundihorn, 82, 83
running animals, 81
Rupesaltor villupes, 68

sabre-tooth, 40, 60
Saevitia feliforme, 91
Sarcophilus harrisii, 97
Scalprodens talpiforme, 42
Scandemys longicaudata, 57
Scinderedens solungulus, 64
scorpions, 27
sea cucumber, 26
sea urchin, 26
seals, 20, 31, 64
sexual reproduction, 12, 13
Seymouria, 29
shalloth, flightless, 109, 109
shark, 18; desert, see desert shark
sheep, 39
shellfish, 26, 64
shrews, 30, 45, 49, 68; chisel-toothed, 46
shrock, 46, 46
shurrack, 68. 69
Silfrangerus giganteus, 98
Silurian, 26
skern, 67, 67
skua, 63
slobber, 96, 97
sloth, 97, 109
slug, 42
Smilomys atrox, 60
snail, land 18; sea, 26
snakes, 29; Pacaus bird, 110; tropical forests, 88, 98
snorke, 106
soil, coniferous forests, 51; temperate woodlands, 37; tropical forests, 87; tropical grasslands, 79
solar system, origins of life in, 24-5, 25
South America, carnivores, 40; continental drift, 113; deserts, 71; dinosaurs, 101; effects of isolation on evolution in, 102; forests, 87, 102; grasslands, 18, 79, 105; marsupials, 31; ungulates, 18
South Pole, 59
Southern Continent, 67
Southern Ocean, 59, 67
sperms, 12, 13
spickle, desert. 76, 76
squirrel, long-bodied, see chirit; spine-tailed, 54, 55
starfish, 26. 26
starling, 54
Stegisaurus, 29
Stenavis piscivora, 67
stoat, 40
strank, 81. 81
strick, 104, 105, 105
striger, 90, 91
sun, demise of, 116
surfbat, sec bats
survival, of the fittest, 21; role of genetics in, 17
swamps, 49, 87, 95

tails, anchorwhip, 88; chirit, 45; clatta, 91; desert ieaper, 75; hiri-hiri, 97; long-armed ziddah, 88, parashrew, 68; sand flapjack, 72 tapir, 98
Tasmanian devil, 97
teeth, carnivores, 40; chirit, 45; distarterops, 64; grazing animals, 81; hornhead, 52; picktooth, 81; rats, 40; reedstilt, 49 temperate woodlands, 36-49 temperature regulation, 18; gigantelope, 82; reptiles, 76; valuphant, 106
Tendesciurus rufus, 45
Теnebra vermiforme, 57
Terebradens tubauris, 46
termite, 84, 92, 98
termite burrower, 98, 98
terratail, 110, 110, 111
Tertiary, 30, 31
testadon, 42, 43
Testudicaudatus tardus, 91
Tetraceras africanus, 82
Thalassomus piscivorus, 64
Thoatherium, 18
Thrinaxodon, 29
Thylapithecus rufus, 97
Thylasus virgatus, 98
tick bird, 106, 107
tinamou, matriarch, 102, 102
toad, oakleaf, 42, 42, 43
tortoise, giant, 101
trevel, 56, 57, 57
Triassic, 29, 30
Triceratops, 29
trilobites, 26
trovamp, 92, 92
truteal, 46, 47
tundra, 39, 51, 52, 58-69, 82, 88
turmi. 92, 93
Tylosaurus, 29

Uca spp., 17
Ungulagus spp., 39, 81; U. cento, 81; U. flavus, 38; U. hirsutus, 38; U. scandens, 38; U. silvicultrix, 38; U. virgatus, 81 Ungulamys cerviforme, 75
ungulates, evolution, 18, 19, 30; extinction of, 39, 81. 105; in Lemuria, 106
Ural Mountains, 113

Valudorsum gravum, 106
valuphant, 106. 106
Velusarus bipod, 76
vertebrae, reedstilt, 49
vertebrates, evolution, 27. 28-9
viper, 98
Viverinus brevipes, 40
volcanoes, 106
voles, 21, 42. 46
vortex, 67
Vulpemustela, 68, V. acer, 54
Vulpemys albulus, 63; V. ferox, 40, 63

wakka, 104, 105, 105
wallaby, 98
watoo, 81, 81
wetlands, temperate. 48-9; tropical. 94-5
whales, 31, 67
whistlers, golden, 110; hawk. 110, 110, 111; Pacauan, 110, 110, 111
wombat, 97
wood-boring birds, 45
woodlands, temperate, 36-49
woodpecker, 110
worms, 26, 42, 92; acorn worm, 26

yippa, long-necked, 106

zarander, 92, 93
zebra, 81
ziddah, long-armed, 88, 88
zooplankton, Polar Ocean, 64

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank Malcolm Hart for his help in predicting the bird life found on earth in fifty million years' time and Dr. John Oats tor his advice and criticism in the preparation ot the text.

Index prepared by Hilary Bird

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bourhere. F., The Natural History of Mammals. George G. Harrap (London, 1955).
Cloudsley-Thompson, J.L., Terrestrial Environments, Groom Helm (London, 1973).
Colinvaux, P., Why Big Fierce Animals Are Rare, Allen & Unwin (London, 1978).
Dawkins, R., The Selfish Gene. Granada (London, 1978).
Gotch, A.F., Mammals - Their Latin Names Explained, Blandford (Poole, 1979).
Gould, S.J., What's Wrong With Marsupials? New Scientist, Vol. 88, No. 1221 (1980).
Halstead, L.B., The Pattern of Vertebrate Evolution, Oliver and Boyd (Edinburgh, 1969).
Hoyle, F. & Wickramasingbe, N.C., Lifecloud, The Origin of Life in the Universe, J.M. Dent (London, 1978).
Koob, D.D. & Boggs, W.E., The Nature of Life, Addibon-Wesley (Reading, Massachusetts, 1972).
Kurten, В., Continental Drift and Evolution, Scientific American, (March, 1969).
Lawrence. M.L. and Brown, R.W.. Mammals of Britain, Their Tracks, Trails and Signs. Blandford (Poole, 1974).
Mitchell, J. (ed.) The Natural World volume of The Mitchell Beazley Joy of Knowledge Library, Mitchell Beazley (London, 1977).
Perry, R., Life in Forest and Jungle. David & Charles (Newton Abbot, 1976).
Rostrand, J., Evolution, Prentice Hall (London, 1960),
Simon. S &. Bonners, S., Life on Ice. Watts (London. 1976).
Simpson, G.G.. Splendid Isolation, The Curious History of South American Mammals, Yale University Press (New Haven and London, 1980).
Stebbins, G.L., Processes of Organic Evolution, Prentice-Hall (New Jersey, 1977).
Young, J.Z., The Life of Vertebrates, University Press (Oxford, 1962).

SOURCES OF REFERENCE

Beerbower, J.R., Search for the past, Prentice-Hall (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1968)
Benes. J.. Prehistoric Plants and Animals, Hamlyn (London, 1979)
Bramwell, M. (ed.), The World Atlas of Birds, Mitchell Beazley (London, 1974)
Carthy. J.D., The Studv of Behaviour. Edward Arnold (London, 1979)
Clark, D.L., Fossils, Palaeontology and Evolution, Wm. C. Brown (Dubuque, Iowa, 1968)
Dietz R.S. & Holden J.C., The Brakeup of Pangaea, Scientific American (October 1970)
Fenton & Fenton, In Prehistoric Seas, George Harrap (London 1964)
Gillie, O., The Living Cell. Thames & Hudson (London, 1971)
Mackean, D.G., Introduction to Genetics, John Murray (London, 1977)
Moore, R., Evolution, Time-Life (London, 1973)
Pfeiffer, J., The Cell, Time-Life (London, 1972)
Philhpson, J., Evolutionary Energetics, Edward Arnold (London, 1966)
Romer. A.S., The Vertebrate Story, University of Chicago (Chicago, 1959)
Scott, J., Palaeontology, Kahn & Averill (London, 1973)
Spinar, Z.V., Life before Man, Thames and Hudson (London, 1972)
Swinnerton, H.H., Outlines of Palaeontology. Edward Arnold (London, 1947)
Whitfield, P. (ed.), The Animal Family, Hamlyn (London, 1979)

The illustration on page 24 was redrawn from the Cambridge Bible of 1663.

ILLUSTRATORS

Diz Wallis, pages: 38-39; 40-41; 42; 44-45; 46; 48-49; 52; 54-55; 56-57; 60-61; 63; 64; 66-67; 68; 72-73; 75; 76-77; 80-81; 82; 84-85; 88-89; 90-91; 92-93; 95; 96-97; 98; 102-103; 105; 106; 108-109; 110-111 John Butler, pages: 43; 47; 65; 69; 83; 94; 104 Brian McIntyre, pages: 36; 50; 58: 70; 78; 86; 100; 112 Philip Hood, pages! 53; 62; 74; 99; 107
Roy Woodard, pages; 23; 33; 34-35; 37; 51; 59; 71; 79; 87; 107; 113 Gary Marsh, pages: 11; 12-13; 14-15; 16-17; 18-19; 20-21; 22; 24-25; 26-27; 28-29; 30-31; 32; 114-115; 116; 118-119

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION BY DESMOND MORRIS 9

AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION 10

EVOLUTION 11

Cell Genetics : Natural Selection : Animal Behaviour : Form and Development :
Food Chains

HISTORY OF LIFE 22

The Origins of Life : Early Living Forms : The Age of Reptiles :
The Age of Mammals : The Age of Man

LIFE AFTER MAN 33

The World after Man

TEMPERATE WOODLANDS AND GRASSLANDS 36

The Rabbucks : The Predators : Creatures of the Undergrowth :
The Tree Dwellers : Nocturnal Animals : The Wetlands

CONIFEROUS FORESTS 50

The Browsing Mammals : The Hunters and the Hunted : Tree Life

TUNDRA AND THE POLAR REGIONS 58

The Migrants : The Meaching and its Enemies : The Polar Ocean :
The Southern Ocean : The Mountains

DESERTS : THE ARID LANDS 70

The Sand Dwellers : Large Desert Animals : The North American Deserts

TROPICAL GRASSLANDS 78

The Grass-eaters : Giants of the Plains : The Meat-eaters

TROPICAL FORESTS 86

The Tree-top Canopy ; Living in the Trees : The Forest Floor :
Living with Water : Australian Forests : The Australian Forest Undergrowth

ISLANDS AND ISLAND CONTINENTS 100

South American Forests : South American Grasslands : The Island of Lemuria :
The Islands of Batavia : The Islands of Pacaus

FUTURE 113

The Destiny of Life

APPENDIX 117

Glossary : The Tree of Life : Index : Acknowledgements